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GCSE Biology > Health, Disease, Defence Mechanisms And Treatments > Flashcards

Health, Disease, Defence Mechanisms And Treatments Flashcards

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1
Q

What are pathogens?

A

Microorganisms that spread disease

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2
Q

How are pathogens spread?

A

Direct contact
By air
Exchange of body fluids
Through food and water
By animals

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3
Q

What is a communicable disease?

A

A disease that can be passed from one organism to another.

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4
Q

What is a non-communicable disease?

A

A disease which cannot spread from one organism to another.

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5
Q

What is HIV?

A

A virus that leads to AIDS, spread by the exchange of body fluids.

Using condoms will reduce the risk of infection, along with drug addicts not sharing needles.
The disease is controlled by drugs but is currently incurable

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6
Q

What are colds and flu?

A

Airborne viruses.

Prevented via flu vaccinations.

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7
Q

What is HPV?

A

Human papilloma virus, spread through intercourse.

Vaccines are offered to 12-13 year olds.

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8
Q

What is Salmonella?

A

A bacterium spread through contaminated food.

Cooking food thoroughly and not mixing cooked and uncooked foods can help control spread. Can be treated by antibiotics.

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9
Q

What is tuberculosis?

A

An airborne bacterium.
Can be treated with antibiotics.

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10
Q

What is chlamydia?

A

A bacterium spread via intercourse.

Using a condom can reduce the risk of infection. Can be treated with antibiotics.

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11
Q

What is Athlete’s foot

A

A fungus spread by contact.
Avoiding direct contact in areas where spores are likely to be present.

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12
Q

What is potato blight?

A

A fungus that infects plants via airborne spores.
Plant rotation and spraying plants with fungicide can reduce chances of infection.

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13
Q

What is droplet infection?

A

An infection transmitted from one individual to another by droplets of moisture expelled through sneezing and coughing.

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14
Q

List some non specific natural defences.

A

Skin
Mucus membranes in the nose and airways
Stomach

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15
Q

How does the skin prevent the entry of microorganisms?

A

Acts as waterproof barrier.
Blood clots and seals wounds.

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16
Q

How does the respiratory system prevent the entry of microorganisms?

A

Cilia and mucus in respiratory passages trap dust which carries germs and sweeps them away.

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17
Q

How does the stomach prevent the entry of microorganisms?

A

Your body doesn’t like the taste of food which looks/smells bad

Acid in stomach kills bacteria

Vomiting.

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18
Q

How does the reproductive system prevent the entry of microorganisms?

A

It has no defences.

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19
Q

List some types of microbe.

A

Fungi
Bacteria
Viruses

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20
Q

What are fungi.

A

Pathogens reproduce by making spores that are carried from organism to organism.
E.g. athletes foot or potato blight.

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21
Q

What are bacteria?

A

Living organisms that feed, move and respire.

Capable or reproducing rapidly by dividing.

Can be killed by temperatures of over 50 degrees Celsius

They can make resistant spores that can only be killed by temperatures in excess of 100 degrees Celsius - sterilisation.

Destroy living tissue and produce toxins.

Three main shapes: Rod (bacilli), spheres (cocci) and spirals (spirochetes).

E.g Salmonella, Gonorrhoea, Chlamydia, whooping cough, tuberculosis

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22
Q

What are viruses?

A

Much smaller than bacteria

Consist of a protein coat surrounding a few genes

Don’t feed, move or respire, just reproduce.

Can only survive within the cells of a living organism.

Inside a cell viruses multiply, releasing thousands of new viruses to infect new cells thus causing the disease.

Outside the cell viruses cannot carry out living processes.

Eg HIV, HPV, measles, Chicken pox, mumps, rubella, polio, colds and flu (influenza)

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23
Q

What are antigens?

A

Proteins present on the surface of all cells.
Specific and unique to an organism, allows your body to recognise its own cells and identity foreign cells such as bacteria.

Antibodies are made to connect to specific antigens of invading pathogens in order to destroy them.

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24
Q

What is the primary response?

A

The initial exposure to a disease. Symptoms are often stronger and antibodies appear slowly. Takes time for immunity to develop.

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25
Q

What are memory lymphocytes?

A

Following an infection, these cells remain in the body for many years so if the pathogen appears again they can start producing antigens very rapidly.

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26
Q

What is the secondary response?

A

When the body is exposed to pathogen it has already dealt with. Symptoms are usually milder or don’t occur at all, and antibodies appear quickly and in great numbers.

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27
Q

What is immunity?

A

The ability to resist disease.
Their antibody levels are high enough to fight off a pathogen before symptoms begin.

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28
Q

What is active immunity?

A

When the body produces antibodies to defend against the invading microbe.
Often takes time to reach immunity but immunity can last a long time or forever.

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29
Q

What is passive immunity?

A

Your body is given antibodies ready made, e.g through placenta or breast milk.

Gives a rapid response to infection and immediate protection but don’t last long as your body hasn’t made them.

30
Q

What is artificial immunity?

A

Vaccinations.
These involve the use of dead or modified pathogens that are injected into the body.
They still possess antigens, which causes the production of antibodies. Memory lymphocytes are produced following a vaccination. This will prevent the individual from becoming ill if they were exposed to that particular pathogen at a later date.

31
Q

What is innate immunity?

A

Immunity you are born with, passed down from your mother via milk or the placenta. This is passive immunity.

32
Q

What is Acquired immunity?

A

Immunity we develop throughout our lives.

33
Q

What structural defences do plants possess?

A

Waxy cuticle.
Thick cell walls.

These prevent pathogens entering leaves.

34
Q

What chemical defences do plants possess?

A

Plants produce antimicrobial chemicals to kill bacteria/fungi/viruses.

E.g Mint.

Certain plant extracts can be used in medicines.

35
Q

Who discovered the first antibiotic? How?

A

Alexander Fleming.
While working with staphylococci bacteria he noticed a mould had started growing on an agar plate by mistake. Around the mould was a clear patch where bacteria wasn’t growing. He deduced the mould was releasing a chemical that diffused through the agar and killed bacteria.

This was penicillin, named after the fungus that produced it, penicillium.

36
Q

When was a pure form of penicillin produced?

A

In the 1940’s by Howard Florey and Ernst Chain.
Large scale production soon began.

37
Q

How are antibiotics such as penicillin produced in mass?

A

Fermenters are used to grow penicillium fungus.

They contain:

A stirrer to evenly distribute microbes, nutrients and oxygen.

A cold water jacket and climate control centre to keep conditions stable.

Sterilised air to prevent other microorganisms from entering and outcompeting the penicillium fungus.

38
Q

What are preclinical trials?

A

Stages before human trails.
Drugs are tested in laboratories on isolated cells and tissues, known as in vitro testing. Computer modelling can also be used.

Following this, animal testing commences.

39
Q

What are some arguments in favour of animal testing?

A

Testing for side effects won’t harm humans in clinical tests.
Allows production of drugs that can cure diseases.
Checking for the effect of a drug on other mammalian species.
Mammals have similar physiology to humans.
Animals are bred specifically for this purpose, like farming.
Rules are tightly regulated by governments to prevent cruelty.

40
Q

What are some arguments against animal testing?

A

Causes pain to animals.
Causes death to animals.
Religious reasons.

41
Q

What are clinical trails?

A

Testing of the drug on human volunteers.

Only takes place if preclinical trails show that the drug works and there are no harmful side affects.
Initially tested on a small number of healthy people, then larger numbers follow.
Although some volunteers are given a fee to take part, some people are willing to act as volunteers as they believe it is morally right to contribute to medical research even though there are risks.
Often used to calculate optimum dosage.

42
Q

What is the optimum dosage?

A

The lowest dose of a drug that will cure a disease.

43
Q

What is peer review?

A

When new research and discoveries are scrutinised by other scientists of at least equal standing to the researcher.

They provide detailed feedback and suggest refinements or other experiments if appropriate.

44
Q

What are antibiotics?

A

Drugs that are used to kill or restrict the growth of bacteria.

45
Q

What is antibiotic resistance?

A

When bacteria develop an immunity to an antibiotic due to natural selection.

46
Q

How would you create an agar plate?

A
  1. Complete the procedure with a Bunsen burner on the bench to kill airborne microorganisms.
  2. Pass a metal loop through the flame to sterilise it.
  3. Allow the metal loop to cool to prevent any microorganism it touches being killed.
  4. Remove the culture bottle lid and sweep the neck of the bottle through the flame to sterilise it.
  5. Glide the metal loop through the bacterial culture. This will inoculate the metal loop with bacteria.
  6. Sweep the neck of the bottle through the flame to sterilise it again.
  7. Replace the culture bottle lid to prevent contamination.
  8. Partially lift the Petri dish lid to prevent the entry of unwanted airborne microorganisms.
  9. Gently glide the inoculated metal loop over the surface of the nutrient agar (agar enriched with nutrients and minerals essential for bacterial growth). This is known as plating.
  10. Pass the metal loop through the flame again to sterilise it.
  11. Tape the Petri dish lid on.
  12. Incubate at 25°C – below body temperature to ensure pathogenic microorganisms do not grow. Incubate upside down to avoid condensation dripping on the bacteria.
47
Q

What are the two major reasons people develop non communicable diseases?

A

Genetics, I.e inheriting genes from your parents
Lifestyle

48
Q

How can diet affect your health?

A

Mainly when eating foods high in sugar and fat, people can develop obesity. This will also likely mean an individual isn’t getting a balanced diet and probably not enough fruits and vegetables, so they miss out on essential vitamins and minerals.

49
Q

How can exercise affect your health?

A

If the energy used by the body is less than the amount we gain from food, obesity can develop.
Exercise has many benefits, including using up energy, strengthening our bones, improving our circulatory system and helping our mood by releasing endorphins.

50
Q

How can overexposure to the sun affect our health?

A

Ultraviolet radiation can result in mutations that leads to skin cancer. The chances of developing skin cancer can be reduced by reducing the amount of time spent in strong sun, covering up when in the sun, and wearing a high SPF sun lotion.

51
Q

What is a drug?

A

Any substance that alters the way the body functions, or changes the way a person behaves, feels, perceives or thinks.

52
Q

How does alcohol affect the body?

A

Small amounts can affect the nervous system by slowing down reactions, leading to a lack of self control and increased aggression.

Large amounts can cause unconsciousness or even coma.

53
Q

What is the most dangerous way to consume alcohol?
How can you avoid it?

A

Binge drinking - when a large amount of alcohol is consumed in a short space of time.

Drinking less alcohol, drinking low alcohol drinks, or drinking more slowly can help reduce harm caused by alcohol.

54
Q

Why might teenagers drink?

A

Peer pressure
Experimentation
Escaping from problems

55
Q

How can drinking be harmful to society?

A

Violence
Absence from work/collage
Relationship problems
Drunk Driving

56
Q

What are some long term effects of alcohol consumption?

A

Dependency, addiction & memory loss
Stomach disorders
Damage to the liver, heart, brain and other organs
Damages Foetus during pregnancy
Weight gain
High blood pressure leading to heart attacks

57
Q

What are the components of cigarettes?
How might smoking tobacco be dangerous?

A

Tar:
Causes bronchitis (narrowing of bronchi and bronchioles, reducing the amount of oxygen that can enter the alveoli)
Emphysema (damage to alveoli, reducing the surface area for gas exchange)
Lung cancer

Nicotine:
Addictive
Increases heart rate

Carbon monoxide:
Combines with red blood cells which reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.

58
Q

How do heart attacks and strokes occur?

A

Blood vessels leading to the heart or brain becoming blocked with cholesterol, preventing these organs from getting oxygen and causing them to stop functioning properly.

59
Q

What causes the pain of a heart attack?

A

Heart muscles can respire aerobically for a short time, which produces lactic acid which causes pain.

60
Q

What can cause a blood vessels to clot?

A

Cholesterol buildup
Platelets (this is called Thrombosis)

61
Q

What factors contribute to heart disease?

A

Diet high in fat
Stress
High blood pressure
Hereditary
Smoking
Lack of exercise
Obesity
High blood cholesterol

62
Q

What is an angioplasty?

A

An angiograph is a medical imaging technique which involves injecting dye into the bloodstream to be viewed through an X-ray.

This allows a damaged artery to be located. A balloon like structure is then sent through the vessel to hold the artery open for a stent, a small mesh like structure that helps keep the vessel open.

63
Q

What drugs can be used to prevent strokes and heart attacks?

A

Statins - reduces blood cholesterol

Aspirin - thins the blood, making it less sticky

64
Q

What is cancer?

A

Uncontrolled or abnormal cell division.
This can occur in every type of cell.

65
Q

How do cancer cells differ from regular cells?

A

Larger nucleus
Thicker cell membranes

66
Q

What are the two types of tumour?

A

Benign - remain in one place and don’t disrupt normal cell function. They may be surrounded by a distinct boundary (encapsulated)

Malignant - cancers that break off from the main (primary) tumour, spread and cause disruption. If not treated quickly enough cells can spread to other parts of the body and grow into secondary tumours. They are less likely to be encapsulated and are usually more dangerous.

67
Q

What are the main causes of cancer?

A

Some chemicals, e.g tar
U-V radiation
Viruses, e.g HPV
Exposure to high levels of radiation
Asbestos dust

68
Q

What ways can cancer be detected early?
Why is this important?

A

Women screened for breast cancer (over 50’s) and cervical cancer (sexually active) every 3 years. Some screened more regularly if there is a history of cancer in the family.

Everyone between 60 and 74 are given the opportunity to screen for bowl cancer.

Men advised to check for signs of testicular cancer and women for breast cancer

People should be aware of early types of cancer e.g moles.

This is important as cancer can be treated more easily in the early stages.

69
Q

How can surgery be used to treat cancer?

A

Removal of cancer cells from the body.

Less effective if the cancer has already spread or is in a difficult or inaccessible part of the body.

70
Q

How can radiotherapy be used to treat cancer?

A

Radiotherapy machines are able to pinpoint X-ray beams onto a tumour.

This kills cancer cells but can also damage other cells. This can be reduced by splitting the dose over many sessions.

71
Q

How can chemotherapy be used to treat cancer?

A

A range of drugs used to kill the cancer cells.
Different drugs are used for different cancers, and are often used in combinations (sometimes up to 8 different drugs).

Since the drugs travel throughout the body through the blood, chemo is often used when a tumour is suspected to have spread. This also makes it essential for treating leukaemia.

Often used as ‘mop up’ after surgery or other treatments, reduce the size of a tumour for surgery, or ease symptoms of patients with incurable cancer.

This is often associated with debilitating side effects such as damage to normal cells, sickness and hair loss, but many types of modern chemo cause only mild symptoms.

GCSE Biology (12 decks)

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