HB CM

Question 1

Woodlands are shaped by (4)

Answer 1

1. geology
2. soils
3. climate
4. people over generations

Question 2

People kept stock in the woodland and the grazing would help with the clearing and regeneration of the woodland. This then supported many other species of plants, invertebrates, birds and mammals.

Answer 2

Wood pasture

Question 3

a large, densely wooded area

Answer 3

Forest

means an area that was subjected by the king to special law, called the forest law (game and hunting). Forests such as the New Forest, Forest of Dean and Sherwood Forest

Question 4

How much plantation is in the UK?

Answer 4

2.2 million ha

out of 2.8 million ha of forest overall

Question 5

BAPS

Answer 5

Biodiversity Action Plans

Question 6

How much % tree cover does the UK have?

Answer 6

13%

Question 7

Main types of Woodlands historical features (4)

Answer 7

1. Archaeology – hillforts, settlement sites, buildings and routeways
2. Past woodland management – charcoal burning platforms, saw pits and boundary banks
3. Type of trees present – this can indicate past management e.g. holly or common hawthorn can indicate a period of grazing wood pasture
4. Earthworks – Banks (wide or narrow) may be divides of land boundaries, lumps and bumps maybe old quarrying activity or even settlements

Question 8

Management of forest aims to

Answer 8

create greater age and size class diversity

Question 9

Cutting deciduous trees down in areas to create diversity of canopy as well as immature and clear areas

Answer 9

Coppice

Question 10

What are the methods of coppicing? management (5)

Answer 10

1. Reinstate or maintain rotational coppice
2. Short to medium rotation (<12 years)
3. Cut smaller coupes/panels one or more per year leaving the majority of the woodland still standing.
4. Cut adjacent panels in succession which allows colonisation by other species.
5. Rides are needed and retain mature standards/non-crop species for ecological value

Question 11

What are the benefits for biodiversity of coppicing? (2)

Answer 11

1. Creates open spaces for microclimate and invertebrates
2. Birds will use coppice up to 10yrs old as it will have thicket habitat and a mix of species

Question 12

How long does it take for a coppiced tree to be ready to harvest again?

Answer 12

7 - 20 years

Question 13

What are the methods of Continuous Cover Forestry? (2)

Answer 13

1. Allow a varied structure without clearfelling.
2. Thinning can be used to create space which will encourage regeneration whilst retaining the majority as closed canopy.

Question 13

What are the benefits for biodiversity of Continuous Cover Forestry? (3)

Answer 13

1. A more diverse structure where some species benefit more from it the others.
2. Retains shading and closed canopy favoured by some species.
3. allows a reduction in problems posed by climate change and biotic threats such as fungal infections and protects the soil from erosion/disturbance and also contributes to locking up more carbon in the larger trees.

Question 14

What are the methods of Minimal Intervention management? (5)

Answer 14

1. Safety measures and boundary infrastructure are the only managed steps with successional processes being allowed.
2. Make sure that the canopy does not crowd so the structure of the woodland needs to be viewed.
3. Works best with areas of established/mature woodland with a variety of structure. These conditions are usually found in wet woodland where the water table helps with decay process/structural change.
4. All dead and decaying wood should be left in place (unless a safety hazard).
5. There are species which have specific requirements and this may need some management such as small group felling.

Question 15

What are the benefits for biodiversity of Minimal Intervention? (4)

Answer 15

1. Allows natural processes to occur. e.g ancient woodland which has associated flora, fauna and fungi.
2. Rich communities of ferns, mosses, lichens and fungi can thrive.
3. Dead wood invertebrates thrive.
4. Usually high biodiversity.

Question 16

What are the management methods of Clear fell and Open Habitats? (7)

Answer 16

1. sometimes large compartments of trees are felled in one go. Felling in this way creates a patchwork of temporary open spaces which support certain species. It can be very disruptive at the time but particularly with felling conifers and allowing natural regeneration of broadleaves has benefits in the end with more biodiversity.
2. normally used in conifer plantations when a crop needs to be taken but can also be done in broadleaf woodland. These types of woodland often lack biodiversity due to single tree species and less diverse structure.
3. Creating rides and glades and encouraging scrubby vegetation along these external edges has a lot of benefit for different species.
4. Leaving some areas of trees to develop old growth, large trees and deadwood can also add variety and wildlife value.
5. Re-growth can be impacted by over-grazing by dear which can deter regeneration and leave a permanent gap.
6. Try to minimise disturbance from public and dog walkers as this can impact ground nesting birds.
7. Also try to manage operations in with the correct time of year so not to impact nesting bird season.

Question 17

What are the benefits for biodiversity of Clear fell and Open Habitats? (1)

Answer 17

As the scrub grows it creates habitat and food for birds, invertebrates including butterflies.

nightjar, woodlark, ground flora and butterflies.

Question 18

What are the management methods of dead and decaying wood? (4)

Answer 18

1. Provide fallen deadwood in different areas in your woodland such as damp areas, sunny areas and dry shady areas. This process can be done during other management techniques such as coppicing or felling.
2. Leave lengths of wood to rot down and decompose. If you’re going to leave in piles make big piles as these are more value than small ones to certain species.
3. Standing deadwood is also beneficial so retain it if its present and if you have none you could use ring-barking on those trees you decide are right (different sizes help).
4. Dead branches on live trees are great for wildlife. Be selective when targeting felling operations and leave some on (as long as its safe).

Question 19

What are the benefits for biodiversity of dead and decaying wood? (2)

Answer 19

1. Fallen deadwood is good for fungi and invertebrates and also provides food and shelter for birds, amphibians and small mammals.
2. Standing deadwood is good for specialist invertebrates such as long-horn beetles and in turn for woodpeckers. Cavities are good for bats.

Question 20

GAP

Answer 20

The Grazing Animals Project

Question 21

Conservation grazing is a less intensive form of land management used on areas which

Answer 21

are less productive (commercially)

Question 22

Conservation grazing involves the use of which animals (4)

Answer 22

1. cattle
2. sheep
3. equines
4. pigs

Question 23

When choosing a grazing species what needs to be considered? (3)

Answer 23

1. Feeding preferences
2. Physiology
3. Animal behaviour

Question 24

Conservation grazing exists to encourage benefits for (3)

Answer 24

1. wildlife
2. landscape
3. cultural heritage

Question 25

Conservation grazing is most commonly used on (2)

Answer 25

1. nature reserves
2. sites of high conservation value, such as species rich grasslands

Question 26

The Grazing Animals Project is a

Answer 26

network of farmers, land managers and conservation organisations in the UK that are committed to promoting the benefits of grazing with the natural environment with cultural heritage in mind

Question 27

Conservation grazing helps conserve semi-natural habitats including (3)

Answer 27

1. grassland
2. heathland
3. pasture-woodland

Question 28

Trampling creates areas of bare ground which helps plant regeneration and it benefits species such as (2)

Answer 28

1. Sand Lizard (Lacerta agilis)
2. Tiger Beetle (Cicindela campestris).

Question 29

The dung from the animals also supports how many insects?

Answer 29

over 250

Question 30

Farmers and landowners, are encouraged to use their stock for conservation grazing through the

Answer 30

Environmental Stewardship Scheme

Question 31

Cow grazing characteristics: (4)

Answer 31

1. removing long, coarse grass. The tussocky grass left is beneficial to insects and small mammals.
2. not selective so graze on a patch rather than individual plants. (avoid rushes) creates a diverse flower-rich sward.
3. create bare ground and trample bracken and low scrub, break up mats of dead litter and create pathways through dense vegetation.
4. browse on trees and twigs by a tearing action rather than nipping with their teeth.

Question 32

Sheep grazing characteristics: (5)

Answer 32

1. Sheep graze by nibbling and eat very close to the ground forming a short sward.
2. Often accused of overgrazing this is usually due to over stocking. With lower stocking they produce a variation in structure with some areas closely grazed and others not touched.
3. They can browse most things but they do need some grass available for their diet needs. particularly useful on species-rich chalk grasslands
4. They readily go into scrubby vegetation but are less well suited to tall vegetation than cattle and horses. Can create bare ground and well worm paths.
5. Seem to prefer taking flower heads so this can be problematic in species-rich swards in the long-term

Question 33

Ponies and Horses grazing characteristics: (4)

Answer 33

1. selective grazers tending to create shorter ‘lawns’ and areas of taller, undisturbed vegetation.
2. In some situations they might be better coupled with cattle.
3. They prefer grass but New Forest Ponies can consume large quantities of bracken.
4. Can tolerate bad weather and are tolerant of insects

Question 34

Pigs grazing characteristics: (5)

Answer 34

1. reduce ground layer density whilst disturbing the soil - allows creation of seed beds burying some tree seeds amongst the many that they eat.
2. low stocking levels - rooting action can be beneficial, reducing rank vegetation and encouraging seedling germination. Pigs are also good for managing bracken and Rhododendron which they can eat without being poisoned. rambles, Nettles, Couch Grass and Wild Roses and cover a wide area efficiently.
3. high stocking levels - impact can result in a complete removal of ground cover, including tree seedlings and seasonal flora such as bluebell and pignut, and even severe damage to mature trees.
4. used in conservation grazing (mainly in woodland). They can be a useful tool which used to be carried out by Wild Boar.
5. carry out Pannage which is where they are released into woods in the Autumn to feed on fallen acorns and nuts.

Question 35

The Maximum Stocking Density is calculated as

Answer 35

an annual average figure by adding up the number of animals on the land at the 15th of each month and dividing by 12

Question 36

85% of Heathland has been lost over the past 150 years through (2)

Answer 36

1. agricultural development and
2. planting of conifers

Question 37

The UK is home to roughly how much of all lowland heathland in the world?

Answer 37

one-fifth

Question 38

What bird species are associated with heathland? (3)

Answer 38

1. Dartford Warbler
2. Nightjar
3. Hobby

Question 39

What mammals use heathland? (5)

Answer 39

1. rabbits
2. hares
3. dormice
4. weasels
5. stoats

Question 40

What Reptiles that are found on heathland? (6)

Answer 40

1. Common Lizard
2. Adder
3. Sand Lizard
4. Slow Worm
5. Smooth Snake
6. Grass Snake

Question 41

What Butterflies can be found on heathland? (4)

Answer 41

1. Small Copper
2. Common Heath
3. Grayling
4. Silver Studded Blue

Question 42

Invasive pioneer species that need controlling on heathlands include (2)

Answer 42

1. Birch
2. Pine

Question 43

Since the WW2 how much chalk grassland has been lost?

Answer 43

80%

Question 44

Which specie of orchid that only grow on chalk grassland? (2)

Answer 44

1. pyramidal
2. bee orchids

Question 45

There has been a decline of what % of species-rich neutral, acid and chalk grassland in less than a century?

Answer 45

97%

Question 46

Flora within chalk grassland will depend on many factors including (4)

Answer 46

1. past management
2. drainage
3. aspect
4. stocking density of grazing animals

Question 47

What are two management styles to be avoided on chalk grassland?

Answer 47

1. under-grazing
2. no grazing
   as this allow coarse grasses and scrub to dominate

Question 48

What are the two management techniques used on chalk grassland?

Answer 48

Grazing
Cutting / Mowing

Question 49

What do you need to consider when grazing chalk grassland? (4)

Answer 49

1. Exclude livestock May-August
2. Graze Sept-Dec do not overgraze. Apr-May to control scrub.
3. Rabbits will graze so measure impact
4. Late flowering plants will be affected by grazing so rotate the grazed area.

Question 50

What do you need to consider when cutting / mowing chalk grassland? (4)

Answer 50

1. Cut July-mid Sept
2. Remove cutting annually as dead vegetation will smother seeds and allow nutrients to build
3. Cut different sections at different times of the year
4. Do not apply fertilisers

Question 51

What are the reasons conservation grazing is important for Heathland? (4)

Answer 51

1. It maintains a mosaic heathland structure.
2. The weight of the animals can be used to supress bracken growth and they can graze unwanted woody plant species.
3. Provides areas of disturbed ground which benefit different species of insects and reptiles.
4. Provides structural diversity and species richness of the vegetation

Question 52

What are the reasons conservation grazing is important for grassland? (3)

Answer 52

1. An open and varied sward can be achieved
2. With a mixed grazing scheme the different impacts the animals have on the landscape will have numerous benefits for both flora and fauna.
3. A good management technique which isn’t too labour intensive to manage.

Question 53

What are the 6 main types of protected areas / official designations in the UK?

Answer 53

1. National Nature Reserves
2. Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty
3. Sites of Special Scientific Interest
4. Special Areas of Conservation
5. Special Protection Areas
6. National Parks

Question 54

Established to protect some of our most important habitats, species and geology. They offer great opportunities to schools, specialist groups and the public to experience wildlife first hand and to learn about nature conservation

Answer 54

National Nature Reserves

Question 55

How many NNRs are there in England?

Answer 55

224

94,400 hectares Largest - The Wash

Question 56

Land originally protected by the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 and latterly additional protection under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (CROW Act). It protects land to conserve and enhance its natural beauty

Answer 56

Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty

Question 57

Criteria for a Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty is (6)

Answer 57

1. Landscape quality, where natural or man-made landscape is good quality.
2. Scenic quality, such as striking coastal landforms.
3. Relative wildness, such as distance from housing or having few roads.
4. Relative tranquillity, where natural sounds, such as streams or birdsong are predominant.
5. Natural heritage features, such as distinctive geology or species and habitat.
6. Cultural heritage, which can include the built environment that makes the area unique, such as archaeological remains or historic parkland.

Question 58

Covered by the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and contain important habitats such as species-rich grassland, heathlands, bogs and ancient woodland, all of which need to be protected

Answer 58

Sites of Special Scientific Interest - they are considered of high ecological or geological value

Question 59

How many SSSI does England have?

Answer 59

England has over 4,100
4,200 square miles

Question 60

Protected areas in the UK that are of European importance

Answer 60

Special Areas of Conservation

Question 61

To conserve the habitat of certain rare or vulnerable birds (listed in the Directive) and regularly occurring migratory birds.

Answer 61

Special Protection Areas

Question 62

How many SPAs does the UK have?

Answer 62

284
New Forest, North Norfolk Coast, Pagham and Pool Harbour, Salisbury Plain, Thursley/Hankley and Frensham Commons

Question 63

Large areas of land that are protected by law for the benefit of the nation.

Answer 63

National Parks
1949 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act
Have their own planning authorities

Question 64

How many National Parks are in the UK?

Answer 64

15
10 in England 10%
3 Wales 20%
2 Scotland 7.3%

Question 65

Under the WCA act it is an offence to do what to plants?

Answer 65

uproot any wild plant without permission, this includes plants without roots

Question 66

Under the Theft Act 1968 it’s also an offence to do what to plants

Answer 66

dig up plants and use them for commercial use
(this includes plants, trees, shrubs, soil, peat and gravel)

Question 67

Under common law it’s not an offence to do what to plants?

Answer 67

pick fruit, foliage, fungi or flowers as long as it’s for personal use, the person is not trespassing, they are not offered for sale and that they are not protected by law.

Question 68

There is a list of endangered plants which are listed on Schedule 8 in the WCA which says you cannot

Answer 68

pick, uproot, cause destruction or sell them

Question 69

What are two of the plants on the WCA Schedule 8 list?

Answer 69

Bluebells and Primroses (only against being sold)

Question 70

Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 protects what animals? (9)

Answer 70

1. Wild birds
2. bats
3. otters
4. many reptiles and amphibians
5. wild cat
6. pine marten
7. dormouse
8. some moths
9. butterflies
10. other invertebrates

Question 71

Schedule 1 lists around how many rare and protected birds?

Answer 71

70

Question 72

Badgers are protected under the

Answer 72

Protection of Badgers Act 1992

Question 73

Under protection of (Schedule 2) of the Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2019. It is illegal to do what? (3)

Answer 73

1. Intentionally or deliberately kill, injure or capture the species.
2. Deliberately disturb the species, whether in a place of rest or not.
3. Damage, destroy or obstruct access to a place of rest.

Question 74

When managing woodland you may need to fell some trees and to do this you would need to apply for a licence from the

Answer 74

licence from the Forestry Authority

Question 75

When managing woodland you may need to fell some trees you do not need a licence when (6)

Answer 75

1. The felling is in accordance with an approved plan under a Forestry Commission grant scheme.
2. The trees are growing in a garden, orchard, churchyard or public open space.
3. The trees are all below 8cm in diameter measured 1.3m above the ground; or in the case of thinnings, below 10cm in diameter; or in the case of coppice or underwood, below 15cm in diameter.
4. The trees are interfering with permitted development, or statutory works by public service providers.
5. The trees are dead, dangerous, causing a nuisance or are badly affected by Dutch elm disease.
6. The felling is in compliance with an Act of Parliament – the Forestry Act 1967

Question 76

A tree preservation order is given to

Answer 76

safeguard trees with significant amenity value

Question 77

Any type of tree can be given a TPO with exemptions of

Answer 77

hedges, bushes and shrubs

Question 78

There are a number of surveys you can do with a woodland including (7)

Answer 78

1. Ancient Tree Survey
2. Woodland Habitat Survey
3. Ancient Woodland Indicator Species Survey
4. Phase 1 Habitat survey
5. Bat survey including assessing trees for potential bat roosts
6. Bird survey
7. Protected species survey – badgers, dormice, nesting birds

Question 79

There has recently been worrying declines in some woodland species such as (3)

Answer 79

1. Ash (Ash die back)
2. Elm (Dutch Elm disease)
3. Oak (Acute Oak decline)

Question 80

When do you survey for ground flora?

Answer 80

April and June

Question 81

When do you survey for Ancient Trees?

Answer 81

Winter

Question 82

When do you survey for breeding birds?

Answer 82

March to June

Question 83

When do you survey for Fungi?

Answer 83

September - November

Question 84

What ecological factors do you look for when surveying woods? (4)

Answer 84

1. Tree and shrub species – Identify and record tree and shrub species present and note if there are stand groups, isolated trees or shrubs, veteran trees, dead or dying and fallen trees or deadwood. Any features suitable for bats such as woodpecker holes, splits or peeling bark.
2. Vertical/horizontal structure of the woodland – This could influence what wildlife may be present. How dense/thin is it, is there a shrub layer and ground flora. Is it heavily shaded?
3. Glades, Rides and Woodland margins – These sunnier and warmer spots within the woodland are often very species rich especially for invertebrates such as butterflies.
4. Fauna – Comment on birds, mammals, insects and anything you may have seen or heard.

Question 85

What physical factors do you look for when surveying woods? (6)

Answer 85

1. Access – Location and condition of roads, rides, public rights of way, stiles, gates, bridges and comment on condition and suitability.
2. Slope and aspect – Indicate compass points and direction of ground slope.
3. Boundaries – Indicate hedge and tree species, wood banks, and types and condition of any fencing.
4. Drainage/watercourses – Indicate locations and directions of ditches, streams and rivers and their condition to be able to carry water effectively.
5. Previous management – note any planting, fencing, coppicing, felling, clearance work.
6. Historic indicators and features – locate, identify and photograph ditches with banks, old large tree stumps, old coppice stools.

Question 86

To create standing deadwood you will need to ring bark the trees by

Answer 86

making two cuts around the tree’s trunk using a chainsaw. This is usually done roughly a foot from the ground for the first one and about four inches above that for the second. Remove the bark from the tree between these two lines and this will result in the tree dying.

Question 87

Which trees coppice the best?

Answer 87

1. hazel
2. sweet chestnut
3. ash
4. lime

Question 88

Coppiced woodland tends to be divided into parcels called

Answer 88

coups (coop) and they are cut on a rotation of usually 8-20 years

Question 89

Coppicing beniefits which ground flora? (4)

Answer 89

1. bluebells
2. wood anemone
3. wild garlic
4. violets

Question 90

When coppicing you should (7)

Answer 90

1. Clear any shrubs or dead wood and trimmings away and make sure you leave the stump and roots intact so they can regrow
2. Remove any young growth around the outside of the stump.
3. Stems up to 8cm diameter can be cut straight through.
4. Stems up to 15cm diameter should be undercut in the front (side facing the direction of fall) before cutting through from behind (for safety).
5. Cut an angle of 30-45 degrees from the horizontal, or trim the stump afterwards.
6. This work should be done between September and March (outside the bird nesting season)
7. Protection around the stump will be needed (especially new growth) as deer, squirrels and rabbits will graze new growth. Brash fencing can be used around a group of stools using the brash resulting from the coppicing

Question 91

openings in the canopy within woodlands and can either be coppiced or managed as grassland and shrub

Answer 91

Glades

Question 92

Linear trackway usually designed for access in woodlands

Answer 92

Rides

Vegetation zones such as a central track or pathway, then taller grassland or wild flower areas either side and then bramble and shrubs into taller trees - ecotone

Question 93

Which creatures benefit from rides and glades? (8)

Answer 93

1. dormice and other small mammals
2. dragonflies
3. birds
4. reptiles
5. bees
6. butterflies
7. moths
8. Bats

Question 94

Thinning trees in woodland is used for?

Answer 94

removing some of the poor, weak, diseased or overcrowded trees to benefit what is left

Question 95

Management plans for woodlands last how long

Answer 95

20 - 100 years

Question 96

Objectives for managing woodland can be (6)

Answer 96

1. Maintaining or creating new wildlife habitats
2. Producing timber
3. Regenerating woodland
4. Enhancing or rewilding woodland
5. Increasing biodiversity
6. Providing public recreation or employment

Question 97

Types of water bodies… (3)

Answer 97

1. Lakes / Lochs and ponds
2. Rivers, Streams and Estuaries
3. Wetlands

Question 98

The wildlife found in lakes and ponds depends on

Answer 98

the geological nature of the drainage basin

Water in the Scottish lochs is soft and contains a low mineral content - it supports less plant and wildlife species.
The low-lying lakes tend to be slightly warmer and have a greater nutrient level bringing with it the wildlife and plant life.

Question 99

Wetlands the richest for wildlife but under threat from (4)

Answer 99

1. Water pollution, mainly from agriculture.
2. Sea level rises
3. Declining ground water due to over abstraction
4. Climate change is also a threat with raising temperatures and unpredictable rainfall

Question 100

Fens and bog need what to avoid the peat drying out

Answer 100

to be fed by rain/ground water

Question 101

Water (aquatic) plants are divided into four main categories

Answer 101

1. Shoreland plants like to have their roots in very damp soil
2. Emergent plants like to have their roots and lower stems in water, they tend to be on the edges of the water where it is shallower
3. Submerged plants live entirely underwater with maybe some leaves at the surface. They have their roots in the soil at the bottom of the pond or river
4. Floating plants do not root in the soil but are floating.

Question 102

Some types of shoreland plants are (8)

Answer 102

1. meadowsweet
2. marsh marigold
3. hemlock water dropwort
4. water mint
5. ragged robin
6. yellow flag iris
7. alder
8. willows

Question 103

Some types of emergent plants are (4)

Answer 103

1. reeds
2. bulrush
3. arrowhead
4. brooklime

Question 104

Some types of Submerged plants are (3)

Answer 104

1. water lily
2. fringed lily
3. Canadian pondweed

Question 105

Some types of floating plants are (2)

Answer 105

1. frogbit
2. duckweed

Question 106

Some types of birds found around water are (10)

Answer 106

1. Little Grebe
2. Grey Heron
3. Little egret
4. Mute Swan
5. Mallard
6. Coot
7. Moorhen
8. Reed warbler
9. Reed bunting
10. Sedge warbler

Question 107

Some types of mammals found around water are

Answer 107

1. otter
2. water shrew
3. mink
4. water vole
5. Chinese water deer
6. soprano and Daubenton’s bats

Question 108

Otters are predators with large home ranges of up to

Answer 108

40km

Question 109

Reptiles and amphibians found around water are (9)

Answer 109

1. palmate newt
2. smooth newt
3. great crested newt
4. common toad
5. natterjack toad (ephemeral pools on sand dunes and sandy heaths)
6. common frog
7. pool frog
8. marsh frog
9. grass snake

Question 110

Fish found in UK fresh water (12)

Answer 110

1. salmon
2. trout
3. eels
4. lamprey
5. tench
6. roach
7. rudd
8. bream
9. carp
10. pike
11. sticklebacks
12. minnows

Question 111

Invertebrates found in fresh water include

Answer 111

1. dragonflies
2. damselflies
3. water beetles
4. shrimps
5. pond snails
6. pond skaters
7. water scorpions
8. caddis flies
9. daphnia
10. cyclops

Question 112

lentic water is

Answer 112

static

Question 113

lotic water is

Answer 113

flowing

Question 114

Lentic water habitats include (6)

Answer 114

1. Ponds
2. Canals
3. Reservoirs
4. Ditches
5. Dew ponds
6. Moats

Question 115

Lentic obtain their water from? (2)

Answer 115

1. rainfall as they are mostly landlocked, this could be straight into the water or from draining from the ground.
2. Drains built or leats to draw water from a nearby lotic habitat to help sustain the water levels

Question 116

What are the three types of permanence of Lentic water habitats ?

Answer 116

1. temporary - not constant and during the dryer months other species will use them, creatures that use this habitat must be adaptable to migrate when there is less water
2. semi-permanent - seasonal - ditches which fill up with water during the wetter seasons
3. permanent - big ponds and lakes where the temperature is cool and there is a good level of rainfall

Question 117

Lentic habitats will have water characteristics that depend on (4)

Answer 117

1. The source and quality of the water
2. underlying geology
3. level of nutrients
4. pH

Question 118

Very few nutrients and offer little in which to sustain life. Bacteria is found here and only suits some species which are adapted to this environment.

Answer 118

Oligotrophic

Question 119

Water with beds of submerged vegetation and medium levels of nutrients.

Answer 119

Mesotrophic

Question 120

Area of water rich in mineral and nutrient properties. Normally have a covering of algae which can be a problem to other species.

Answer 120

Eutrophic

Question 121

The water is acid and poor in nutrients limiting vegetation and creatures that can survive. Often very boggy areas and associated with peat.

Answer 121

Dystrophic

Question 122

Lotic water environments include (5)

Answer 122

flowing ecosystems

1. streams
2. rivers
3. creeks
4. brooks
5. springs

Question 123

Lotic water ecosystems can be divided into two parts based on the speed of water flow and the rate of flow:

Answer 123

1. Fast flowing aquatic environment - rapids
2. Slow moving aquatic environment - pools

Question 124

Why carry out freshwater surveys? (9)

Answer 124

1. describe the diversity of invertebrates in the water to determine water quality
2. describe the diversity of invertebrates and how they vary between pools and riffles or rapids in a stream.
3. determine if the invertebrate diversity of a stream changes with distance from a source.
4. determine abiotic factors and how they change in the stream with distance from the source.
5. compare invertebrate diversity in a stream over time with regular monitoring.
6. find out if the variation in diversity related to abiotic factors.
7. Establish if invertebrate diversity varies between different parts of a pond.
8. find out which part of a pond has the highest invertebrate diversity?
9. To help decide how a pond should be managed.

Question 125

There are two methods of fresh water sampling - what are they?

Answer 125

1. Sweep netting
2. Kick sampling

Question 126

What is the method for kick sampling? (5)

Answer 126

1. suitable for shallow running water with a gravel or muddy bottom
2. Standing in the stream facing downstream, hold a fine-mesh net under the water
3. kick the substrate at the bottom of the stream, dislodging the substrate and any invertebrates in the direction of the net
4. always take the first sample at the lowest point upstream, then work back upstream
5. Standardise - The time you spend kicking at each site (e.g. 30 seconds), the area of stream bed that you sample at each site (size).

Question 127

What is the method for Sweep netting?

Answer 127

1. In still water such as a pond, or if the water is too deep to enter safely, stand on the bank
2. vigorously sweep a net in the water, ideally tracing out a figure-of-eight shape.
3. Standardise - time you spend sweeping at each site (e.g. 30 seconds), the volume of water that you sample at each site

Question 128

How much of UK rivers UK fail to meet required health standards and face multiple threats?

Answer 128

over three quarters

Question 129

How much species-rich grassland have we lost in the UK?

Answer 129

97%

Question 130

We have lost many different types of species rich grassland due to agricultural development including (5)

Answer 130

1. herbicides
2. organic fertilisers
3. ploughing
4. over grazing
5. draining of grasslands

Question 131

Grasslands cover how much of the earth’s land area?

Answer 131

20-40%

Question 132

Who first used the phrase “ecosystem”?

Answer 132

Sir Arthur Tansley

Question 133

What model proposed that prehistoric ‘wildwood’ formed a continuous canopy of trees dominated by oak although pollen found in the 1950s showed a more complex picture and that dominant trees could have been lime rather than oak?

Answer 133

Continuous Woodland Model - Sir Arthur Tansley

Question 134

What model proposed that the competing influences of munching herbivores and growing vegetation produced a cycle of succession from trees to scrub to grassland and back again. This so-called ‘Vera-cycle’ leads to a stable but dynamic equilibrium between open grazed areas and closed canopy woodland areas, much like we see on the African plains.

Answer 134

Grazed Forest Model – Franz Vera (2000)

Question 135

In what period was there a clearance of forest and an increase in range-land, river valleys were cleared for people to settle and there was extensive sheep farming. All this led to the development of semi-natural poor grassland. During this time there were developments in mixed agricultural systems.

Answer 135

Neolithic period

Question 136

In what period were techniques such as grazing, cutting and burning of newly created grassland would have arrested succession and in doing so made conditions suitable for the plants , animals and introduced species adapted to grassland to thrive.

Answer 136

Early agricultural period

Question 137

What are the Abiotic factors that effect grasslands? (3)

Answer 137

1. Soil moisture and pH - meters can be used pushing a probe into the soil and reading the meter. pH can affect fertility and a lot of acid grasslands have had lime added in the past to increase fertility.
2. Temperature - measured with a thermometer for air temperature and a probe for soil temperature
3. Light intensity - Light meters can be used to get a measurement. Grasslands are really adapted for full sunlight.

Question 138

What are the Biotic factors that effect grasslands? (4)

Answer 138

1. some biotic factors include producers, consumers and decomposers
2. Competition for environmental resources, disease and food availability.
3. Grazing leads to dominant plants outcompeting other species, too much grazing decreases the level of biodiversity
4. high numbers of prey such as rabbits or deer can lead to overgrazing resulting in loss of biodiversity

Question 139

What are the categories of Lowland Grassland in Britain? (5)

Answer 139

1. Mesotrophic (Neutral grassland) - within enclosed field systems on moist mineral soils.
2. Calcareous - Steep slopes of limestone or chalk. These grasslands are generally used for grazing sheep and cattle.
3. Acidic - occur on acid rocks (sandstones) or associated with upland peaty soils or with dwarf shrub heath communities as a result of heavy grazing and burning techniques.
4. Fen meadows / Rush pastures - occur on peat and mineral soils on level ground and gentle slopes. The water table is normally quite high and near to the surface most of the year. They are used to graze cattle during the summer but can also be cut for bog hay.
5. Calaminarian - occurs when there is heavy metals in the soil such as lead and zinc and is found around places where mining takes place.

Question 140

Species rich grasslands can have as many as how many species of wildflower within a square meter?

Answer 140

30

Question 141

What plant species may be seen in unimproved grassland in spring and summer? (6)

Answer 141

1. orchids
2. cowslip
3. ox-eye daisy
4. common knapweed
5. bird’s foot trefoil
6. red clover

Question 142

What common plants can be found on grassland? (6)

Answer 142

1. Cow parsley
2. Oxeye daisy
3. Cocksfoot grass
4. Meadow foxtail
5. Yorkshire fog
6. Cowslip

Question 143

What species of orchid can be found of species-rich grasslands? (10)

Answer 143

1. Common spotted
2. Bee
3. Early purple
4. Pyramidal
5. Burnt
6. Marsh
7. Heath spotted
8. Fly
9. Butterfly
10. Broad Heath Helleborine

Question 144

What diversity of species might you find on grassland? (10)

Answer 144

1. Rabbit
2. Skylark
3. Meadow pipit
4. Knapweed
5. Meadow buttercup
6. Oxeye daisy
7. Field grasshopper
8. Common blue butterfly
9. Brown Argus
10. Meadow Brown

Question 145

What butterflies are found on grassland?
(‘brown’ butterfly larvae feed on grasses)

Answer 145

1. Meadow brown
2. Common blue
3. Ringlet
4. Gatekeeper
5. Small copper
6. Wall brown
7. Brown argus
8. Clouded yellow
9. Small heath
10. Large skipper

Question 146

What are Specific threats to grasslands? (8)

Answer 146

1. Poor agricultural practices – removal of species-rich grasslands, re-seeding, inorganic fertilisers
2. Ploughing up grassland as part of the farm rotation destroys the fungal mycorrhizae in the soils which help capture nutrients naturally.
3. Monocropping
4. Toxic pesticides
5. Grazing livestock – Sympathetic grazing can reduce competitive plants and allow wild flowers to grow.
6. Global warming – In some parts of the world it will eventually turn grasslands into deserts. A rise in temperatures could mean grassland gets scorched and die off.
7. Development of urban areas
8. Invasive species

Question 147

What are the solutions to grassland problems? (4)

Answer 147

1. Education – educate the next generation and the farming industry on how to protect soil and prevent erosion.
2. Funding to farmers to encourage developing more biodiverse ecosystems on farms.
3. Protect and restore wetlands – protect this environment which is an important part of grassland ecology and encourage more wet grasslands.
4. Reduce grazing pressure to allow wild flowers and grasses to set seed.

Question 148

A true wildflower meadow is an area of grass…

Answer 148

maintained by an annual hay cut and grazing. It is made up of perennial, biennial and annual plants (species that grow and flower each year).

Question 149

Species within a true wildflower meadow include: (15)

Answer 149

Grasses
1. crested dog’s-tail
2. sweet vernal grass
3. yorkshire fog.
Daisy
4. knapweed
5. oxeye daisy
6. cat’s-ear
Pea and vetch
7. red clover
8. bird’s-foot trefoil,
9. bush vetch
10. sainfoin
Others
11. buttercups
12. meadow crane’s-bill
13. lady’s bedstraw
14. cowslips
15. wild carrot

Question 150

Meadows and other species-rich grasslands now cover how much of the UK?

Answer 150

less than 1%

Question 151

Carbon held in the deep peat soils of fens and raised bogs hold how much carbon as the equivalent area of tropical rainforest?

Answer 151

eight times

Question 152

Heathlands and grasslands store more carbon than…

Answer 152

modern agricultural landscapes but less than peatlands, saltmarsh and old woodlands.

Question 153

The land area of the UK under agriculture is

Answer 153

72% around 17.6 million hectares

Question 154

How much of farmland species are now on a decline?

Answer 154

60%

Question 155

Environmental Land Management Scheme (ELMS) is part of the…

Answer 155

The Path to Sustainable Farming: An Agricultural Transition Plan 2021 to 2024

Question 156

Environmental Land Management Scheme (ELMS) has 3 parts…

Answer 156

1. Sustainable Farming Incentive (SFI) - pay farmers for taking actions above minimum legal requirements to promote wildlife diversity, use water efficiently, enhance hedgerows and manage croplands and grasslands, while continuing to use their land for production
2. Local Nature Recovery Programme - pay for actions that support natural recovery in local areas, such as creating, managing and restoring natural habitats, peat or wetland areas, and hedgerows. It will encourage co-ordination between different farmers.
3. Landscape Recovery Scheme - will support long-term changes to land use, such as large-scale tree planting and peatland restoration projects. Proposals sent in by individuals or groups and Defra selecting those with most potential

Question 157

To meet the government’s environmental goals, Defra is aiming for at least what % of farmers, covering at least what % of farmland, to take part in SFI

Answer 157

70% & 70%

Question 158

The Environmental Land Management Scheme (ELMS) will be introduced over what period?

Answer 158

2021–2028

Question 159

Arable Field Margins provide what for wildlife? (5)

Answer 159

1. nest sites for ground nesting birds such as grey partridge, Whitethroats, Yellowhammers, Corn buntings.
2. provides overwintering habitat for many insects
3. important for pollinators which will be attracted by the wildflowers
4. small mammals use these areas such as voles and mice.
5. support flowering plants which produce seeds for birds to eat

Question 160

Drainage channels provide what for wildlife? (4)

Answer 160

1. The channels that are wet all year round are the ones that support the most wildlife.
2. good for wetland plants, invertebrates (e.g. dragonflies) and birds (e.g. moorhens).
3. Larger channels can support fish, amphibians and some bigger mammals such as otters and water voles.
4. grass strips either side of the channels can increase the wildlife found on the farm. It can help to stop agricultural runoff and help stop the spread of weeds.

Question 161

Farmlands extensively grazed grassland can be used for wildlife by (3)

Answer 161

1. Making sure there is pasture that contains flowering dandelions provide seed for bird species such as Linnet and Goldfinch. This is also helpful in the winter when invertebrate feeders come to grazed grassland such as Starlings and Thrushes.
2. By reducing stock density levels you can increase the amount of nesting areas for birds such as lapwings, curlews, skylarks and yellow wagtails.
3. extensive grazing of the fields which have high water table or wet flushes help support redshanks and snipe.

Question 162

What animals use farm buildings? (6)

Answer 162

1. Bats
2. House martins
3. swallows
4. barn owls
5. kestrels
6. insects on ferns, mosses and lichens

Question 163

Hay Meadows on farmland provide what for wildlife? (3)

Answer 163

1. cut once the flowers have set seed, allow birds to finish nesting season and allowing the flowering plant species to set seed before cutting. Mid-July onwards is best.
2. Plant species can include meadow foxtail, lady’s bedstraw, common knapweed, ox-eye daisy, wild carrot and meadow buttercup. Some of the best examples of this habitat can support up to 45 species per square meter!
3. This habitat also has a great invertebrate diversity

Question 164

Over-wintered stubble is good for (4)

Answer 164

1. Birds like skylark and yellowhammers need this type of habitat which provides a good seed resource.
2. supports species such as brown hare and rare arable plants.
3. will help and slow declining numbers of farmland birds.
4. reduce winter soil erosion.

Question 165

Hedgerows are good for

Answer 165

wildlife corridors, habitat and a food source for many species.

75% of the wildlife is found in the hedgerows!

Question 166

Scrub is good for (4)

Answer 166

1. include species such as hawthorn, blackthorn and, in damper areas, willow.
2. supports a diverse range of species, particularly nesting birds and a variety of invertebrates.
3. different growth stages from bare ground through to young and old growth including decaying wood.
4. The nectar that the flowers provide attract the insects and the seeds and berries attract birds and mammals.

Question 167

Opportunities to increase biodiversity within farming are (4)

Answer 167

1. Grow more flowers – having plants that flower successively throughout the year means that there is food availability all year round for wildlife.
2. Plant more trees and scrub – blackthorn, hawthorn and other woodland species are beneficial for nesting birds and carbon capture, in winter they help to protect soils.
3. Create more ponds – ponds attract amphibians, a range of invertebrates, fish, birds and mammals. They are They work to control pests that eat crops. Ponds also attract moths and butterflies and can be home to many invertebrates.
4. Manage hedgerows sympathetically – keep them untrimmed as late as possible to retain the berries and nuts in the winter for birds and mammals. Allow them to be bushy for nesting birds and invertebrates.

Question 168

Two management options on farms are

Answer 168

1. Wildlife friendly farming – tailoring practices to enhance populations of wildlife by creating a more integrated system. Avoiding pesticides and herbicides and over-managing the farm.
2. Land sparing – this is where portions of agricultural land are managed intensively to increase yield, allowing other land to return to semi-natural state which can act as reservoirs of biodiversity.

Question 169

Characteristics of biomes are defined by (3)

Answer 169

1. latitude
2. rainfall
3. temperatures

Question 170

There are 8 biomes they are:

Answer 170

1. Tundra – found near the North and South poles. Very few plants and animals can survive here. Cold temperatures with permafrost beneath the surface.
2. Taiga (coniferous forest) – found in Scandinavia, Russia and Canada. Evergreen trees thrive in this cool temperate climate.
3. Temperate deciduous forest – found across Europe, USA, eastern Australia and Asia and in New Zealand. These trees lose their leaves every year and thrive in mild and wet conditions known as a temperate maritime climate.
4. Temperate grassland – found in Hungary, South Africa, Argentina, Australia and the USA. Consists of grass and trees that thrive in a temperate continental climate of moderate rainfall and mild conditions.
5. Chaparral or evergreen hardwood (Mediterranean) – found around the Mediterranean Sea, around Perth and Melbourne in Australia and California in the USA.
6. Desert – found near the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Conditions here are very hot and dry and little can survive. Plants and animals are specially adapted to survive in the harsh conditions.
7. Tropical rainforest – found near the Equator. The climate is hot and humid and many different species can be found here making this one of the most biodiverse biomes.
8. Savanna grassland – found mainly in central Africa, southern India, northern Australia and central South America. Long grasses and a few scattered trees are found in these hot and dry conditions.

Question 171

Locations of Tropical forests in order of size are:

Answer 171

1. Brazil
2. Congo
3. Indonesia
4. Peru
5. Colombia

Question 172

A tropical rainforest is a forest with a

Answer 172

high rainfall that grows in a tropical region – are found near the Equator and within the the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn

Question 173

The world’s tropical rainforests hold as much as how much % of all the Earth’s species?

Answer 173

50%

Question 174

Animals that live in tropical forest include:

Answer 174

South American - 1. caimans, 2. jaguars, 3. green anacondas, 4. boa constrictors, 5. harpy eagles, 6. red-eyed tree frogs and 7. howler monkeys.

African - 1. leopards, 2. African forest elephants, 3. gorillas, 4. chimpanzees, 5. okapis, 6. parrots and 7. hornbills.

Asian - 1. orangutans, 2. tigers, 3. Asian elephants, 4. crocodiles, 5. clouded leopards, 6. sun bears, 7. gibbons, 8. Malaysian tapirs and 9. slow lorises.

Question 175

Rainforest plants that have stiff, spiked leaves which radiate out from a central point. The leaves channel rainwater into a pool at the center of the plant. This pool provides a habitat for animals such as frogs, whose tadpoles grow inside the plants.

Answer 175

Bromeliads

Question 176

Deforestation is the main threat to this rain forests and this is taking place for because of: (5)

Answer 176

1. Farming – pastoral farming for the demand of meat products and arable farming for cash crops such as soya beans.
2. Logging – trees like mahogany chopped down and sold for timber and other trees are cut down for paper products.
3. Mining – natural resources such as iron ore, copper, tin, aluminium and gold are extracted. The Carajas mine in Brazil is the largest iron ore mine in the world.
4. Roads – construction for farmers, loggers and miners.
5. Hydroelectric power – results in large areas of the forest being flooded for reservoirs and dams.

Question 177

Impacts of rain forest deforestation are (4)

Answer 177

(Tropical hardwood trees make up much of the canopy and live in poor soils where nutrients are lacking but the nutrient cycle is carefully balanced.)

1. Clearing the forest means most plants cannot survive in these soil conditions and this can leave the area prone to desertification and soil erosion.
2. Burning trees releases carbon into the atmosphere. 3. The lack of shade and trees alters the temperatures and the rainfall cycles.
3. The trees and plants contribute to the fight against climate change by capturing vast amounts of carbon and without them this contributes towards global warming.

Question 178

Rain forest Sustainable management practices are (3)

Answer 178

1. Logging and replanting – Planned and controlled logging ensures that for every tree logged another is planted. Carefully selecting specific trees allows the canopy of the rainforest to be preserved.
2. International agreements – Agreements such as debt-for-nature between different countries help towards protecting the rainforests. When a country is owed money by another, part of the debt can be cancelled in the country owing the money if it does conservation work in the rainforest.
3. Education/Eco-tourism – Promote the value of biodiversity associated with tropical rainforests and encourage sustainable tourism that pays for protection and conservation.

Question 179

Temperate forests can be found in most temperate regions of the world where

Answer 179

climates have warm summers and cold winters
Deciduous and coniferous

Question 180

Some plants thrive in very deep ocean water where they get no sunlight; these plants are called

Answer 180

phosphorescent, and they can produce their own light

Question 181

How to ensure personal safety when working on private land…

Answer 181

1. Make sure that you have the correct PPE
2. always write a risk assessment taking into account all hazards such as weather, ground conditions and public access.
3. Make sure that there is no lone working and if this can’t be achieved then ensure you have contacts locally that are aware of your plans.
4. Make sure you have had correct training
5. first aid kit and mobile phone with you

Question 182

Grassland is species-rich if it has (3)

Answer 182

1. more than 15 plant species per square metre
2. more than 30% cover of wildflowers and sedges (excluding white clover, creeping buttercup and injurious weeds)
3. less than 10% cover of white clover and perennial rye grass.

Question 183

Types of species-rich grassland can include (7)

Answer 183

1. Lowland meadows
2. Upland hay meadows
3. Lowland calcareous grassland
4. Upland calcareous grassland
5. Lowland acid grassland
6. Purple moor-grass and rush pastures
7. Calaminarian grassland

Question 184

Species-rich grassland type usually depends on factors including (6)

Answer 184

1. Underlying geology
2. Soil pH
3. Hydrology
4. Management
5. History
6. Location

Question 185

Species-rich grassland has a wider use (5)

Answer 185

1. keeps soil healthy and carbon-rich
2. protects soil from erosion
3. provides a range of forage for livestock
4. is part of the character of a landscape
5. can be part of our cultural heritage where traditions and skills are maintained, like haymaking.

Question 186

What three ways can we maintain species-rich grassland?

Answer 186

1. graze (most important)
2. cut for hay (if grazing not possible)
3. cut to maintain grassy vegetation

Question 187

A grassland that is under managed soon succumbs to

Answer 187

weeds such as nettles, brambles and thistles and tree saplings soon appear shading out the grassland

Question 188

In species-rich grassland you should not (8)

Answer 188

1. plough or reseed
2. apply fertiliser, except to replace nutrients removed through haymaking
3. change any drainage, other than cleaning and maintenance
4. use pesticides
5. use herbicides, except in limited situations where you need to manage injurious weeds or invasive non-native species
6. change the soil pH
7. compact the soil by grazing or using machinery when the soil is too wet
8. supplementary feed the livestock

Question 189

Weeds can harm livestock, agricultural productivity and the environment, but native weeds like nettles are important for biodiversity. You should manage these weeds so that they can provide their benefits but do not spread and cause problems. These ‘Harmful’ weeds are: (5)

Answer 189

1. creeping thistle
2. spear thistle
3. common ragwort
4. broad-leaved dock
5. curled dock

Question 190

INNS

Answer 190

Invasive non-native species

Question 191

When you manage weeds in grassland well, you’ll: (5)

Answer 191

1. improve yields
2. improve hay quality
3. protect your livestock’s health
4. reduce or avoid herbicide use, which helps protect ground and surface waters
5. meet your legal obligations to prevent the spread of harmful weeds.

Question 192

When you allow weeds to flower but stop them from spreading (setting seed), you’ll (2)

Answer 192

1. provide pollen, nectar and seeds for birds and invertebrates
2. maintain the quality of species-rich grassland and high-value, low-input grassland

Question 193

When managing grassland for weeds you need to be aware of: (4)

Answer 193

1. a weed infestation may indicate underlying grassland management issues.
2. if you struggle to fix severe weed problems, you may need to get advice from an ecologist.
3. if you take areas like field corners out of production, you may need to act to stop the spread of weeds.
4. prevent bare ground where these weeds can soon establish.

Question 194

Bare ground will encourage too many weeds to grow. To prevent livestock creating bare ground, do not allow them to overgraze the sward. This can happen if you (4)

Answer 194

1. keep high stock numbers
2. use inappropriate stock
3. graze one area for too long
4. graze when it is really wet or waterlogged

Question 195

To avoid nutrient enrichment, in species-rich grassland do not:

Answer 195

1. deposit spoil, ditch cleanings or large amounts of dung onto the land
2. let nutrients transfer from yards and buildings onto surrounding land
3. add fertiliser

Question 196

How do you manage weeds in grassland (5)

Answer 196

1. good grazing
2. with machinery
3. by hand
4. Limit herbicide use to spot spraying and weed wiping. If your land is part of a SSSI you must check if you need consent to apply herbicides before you start. 5. Try to ensure you do not allow the weeds to set seed and spread

Question 197

When / how to use fertiliser on species rich meadows (6)

Answer 197

1. Soil phosphate (P) levels need to be at index 1 or less
2. Dung from grazing livestock will help return some nutrients to the soil. Use well-rotted farmyard manure to replace nutrients lost by cutting and removing hay or haylage.
3. Apply no more than 12 tonnes per hectare of manure in a single year.
4. Apply manure only every second or third year.
5. Do not increase inputs above your current levels.
6. Apply manure in spring to minimise nutrient losses and the risk of water pollution.

Question 198

Where should sheep grazing be used? (2)

Answer 198

1. lowland acid grassland
2. calcareous grassland on thin soils

Question 199

Aftermath grazing is…

Answer 199

light grazing following the hay cut up to about October, or no later than February

Question 200

Grazing provides (4)

Answer 200

1. late summer forage
2. more nutrients for fields
3. better germination as livestock trample seeds into the soil
4. conditions for less vigorous species to compete with more competitive grasses

Question 201

When should you remove livestock?

Answer 201

1. when the average sward height falls below 5cm
2. when the ground is too wet - reduces poaching

Question 202

Cattle grazing Advantages (4) Disadvantages (5)

Answer 202

Advantages:
1. Cattle trample down and eat coarse grasses.
2. At lower stock densities they create a less uniform sward than sheep grazing.
3. Cattle tend to be more hardy around public places and where people walk their dogs.
4. Cattle can be used for their meat and if organic can reach a higher price.

Disadvantages:
1. Transport can be problematic.
2. Handling can be more difficult depending on age and breed.
3. Cattle are more expensive than sheep.
4. They require more food and water availability.
5. In wet conditions heavy trampling can cause poaching which can damage the soil structure.

Question 203

Sheep grazing Advantages (4) Disadvantages (5)

Answer 203

Advantages:
1. Good at maintaining short turf.
2. Some breeds easy to handle.
3. Not bothered by public or well behaved dogs.
4. They can be used on slopes.

Disadvantages:
1. Can lose condition on poor grassland.
2. Some breeds more difficult to handle.
3. Can be difficult to sell the lambs.
4. They can escape.
5. Some sheep are known for health issues.

Question 204

Horses / ponies grazing Advantages (4) Disadvantages (3)

Answer 204

Advantages:
1. Grazing horses or ponies support a diverse habitat for invertebrate due to the nature of their grazing as it creates patches in different places.
2. They will eat almost everything.
3 .Some varieties are more hardy such as Exmoor and Dartmoor ponies and also they need little care or supervision.
4. They can be used to reclaim/restore land that has been neglected.

Disadvantages:
1. They are selective with what they graze and may not always graze the species you wish to target.
2. It creates a untidy look as they tend to leave patches ungrazed.
3. They defecate in certain areas which adds nutrients to the grassland (sometimes unwanted).

Question 205

Deer grazing Advantages (3) Disadvantages (3)

Answer 205

Advantages:
1. Deer meat is popular and they are used to graze grassland, sometimes large areas.
2. They can change what they eat and are less selective.
3. They can be used in different terrains.

Disadvantages:
1. Handling and looking after deer can be problematic.
2. They sometimes need extra feeding.
3. It can be costly keeping them contained with fencing

Question 206

Haymaking is best suited to (2)

Answer 206

1. land receiving no or low inputs of nutrients
2. species-rich grassland

Question 207

Benefits of making field-dried hay (8)

Answer 207

1. reduce fertiliser costs compared to making silage.
2. produce good quality winter forage for livestock.
3. Species-rich green hay is very valuable for conservation grassland restoration projects.
4. healthier, carbon-rich soils.
5. better conditions for a large number and range of wildflowers, including rare species.
6. more food, nesting and shelter for insects, birds, bats and small mammals.
7. improved water quality.
8. the cultural value of a traditional landscape.

Question 208

Mowing grassland Advantages (3) Disadvantages (3)

Answer 208

Advantages:
1. Cutting grass late July allows the nesting period for birds to be undisturbed.
2. It allows flowers time to grow and set seed if mowing is carried out later.
3. You can feed livestock on the aftermath from September to November.

Disadvantages:
1. If the site is wet aftermath grazing can cause poaching from livestock.
2. If the site has public access you would need to find a way of containing the livestock.
3. May have access problems for farm machinery during inclement weather.

Question 209

Flailing grassland Advantages (3) Disadvantages (3)

Answer 209

Advantages:
1. Flailing can tackle more woody scrub.
2. This technique can give the site a more natural look.
3. Flailing can be done quite quickly.

Disadvantages:
1. Difficult to use on uneven ground.
2. Difficult to use on wet/boggy areas.
3. It tends to cut everything so can also cut those wanted flower species.

Question 210

Cut and collect grassland Advantages (3) Disadvantages (3)

Answer 210

Advantages:
1. It takes away unwanted nutrients from site.
2. It’s a quick technique to use.
3. Mowers can also tackle Bracken and scrub.

Disadvantages:
1. It will cut everything on site.
2. Need access for large machinery.
3. High maintenance cost for the machinery.

Question 211

Swaling is a local term for the controlled burning or moorland and is carried out by farmers and land managers between

Answer 211

1st October and 15th April where sections are burned carefully on a rotational cycle. This technique encourages regeneration of vegetation.

Question 212

What areas are suited to management by swailing?

Answer 212

Areas dominated by purple moor-grass. This grass leaves a dense dead thatch which supresses other smaller plants

Question 213

Swaling is governed by two things

Answer 213

1. The Grass and Burning Regulations
2. agreement that exists between the landowner and Natural England (if SSSI).

These agreements are guided by the Heather and Grass Burning Code 2007

Question 214

Swailing Advantages (3) Disadvantages (3)

Answer 214

Advantages:
1. Agriculturally this technique helps stimulate new growth.
2. This technique can be cheaper than other forms of management.
3. It can be done during the winter months.

Disadvantages:
1. Can lead to the spread of Tor Grass.
2. Fire can spread if not managed well and kill off species you want to keep.
3. It can bring a weed invasion and increase the nutrient levels.

Question 215

Before grassland management methods can be decided upon the following Information is needed (3)

Answer 215

1. Plant communities and plant and animal assemblages present (to decide conservation objectives).
2. Site characteristics such as slope and aspect, sward structure, details of soil structure and drainage features.
3. Recent and past management including has it been grazed, mown or burned? If grazed what species, number, breed, age and sex of stock used? How long were livestock on site each year and between what periods? Has there been supplementary feeding or use of fertilisers and herbicides? If the site has been mown is it annually, biennial or less, for how long was it closed and what date was it mown?

Question 216

Factors you can (3) control with grassland management and those you can’t (4)

Answer 216

Controllable factors:
1. Standing crop / vegetation structure
2. Nutrient status
3. Hydrology

Uncontrollable factors
1. Climate
2. Natural population dynamics
3. Adjacent land use
4. Atmospheric deposition

Question 217

How do you maintain lowland meadows? (2)

Answer 217

1. as permanent pasture by grazing or by hay cutting and aftermath grazing.
2. Aim for vegetation between 5cm and 15cm on average through the summer, unless the grassland is shut up for hay.

You may see birds like skylarks and a wide range of bees, butterflies and other invertebrates

Question 218

A floodplain meadow in good condition will have (2)

Answer 218

1. Tall, moisture-loving wildflowers like great burnet, meadowsweet and pepper saxifrage
2. Maintained surface drainage that allows water to flow freely back to watercourses after a flood

Question 219

A lowland meadow in good condition will have wildflowers like (3)

Answer 219

1. yellow-rattle
2. bird’s-foot-trefoil
3. common knapweed

Question 220

You’ll find lowland meadows on

Answer 220

free-draining, neutral soils.

Lowland meadows are the most common type of species-rich grassland and vary widely across the country.

Question 221

Upland hay meadows in good condition are cut for hay and have: (4)

Answer 221

1. wildflowers like pignut, great burnet and meadowsweet that flower and set seed each year.
2. more than 50% cover of wildflowers and sedges.
3. no more than 50% cover of rushes.
4. a mix of vegetation heights while livestock are grazing the grassland

Question 222

You’ll find upland hay meadows on

Answer 222

enclosed land between 200 metres and 400 metres above sea level.

If grazing in spring, maintain the vegetation at least 5cm tall. After cutting hay, graze until the vegetation is on average between 5cm and 10cm tall.

Question 223

Lowland calcareous grassland can be known locally as

Answer 223

wolds or downs

Question 224

Lowland calcareous grassland in good condition is usually grazed and will have (6) and you might see (5)

Answer 224

1. wildflowers like bird’s-foot-trefoil, lady’s bedstraw and common rock-rose that flower and set seed each year
2. herbs, like wild thyme, basil and marjoram,
3. fewer coarse grasses, like tor-grass which can smother wildflowers,
4. vegetation that is on average 5cm to 15cm tall in July and August,
5. vegetation that is on average 2cm to 7cm tall by the time you remove livestock in spring,
6. small patches of bare ground with mosses and lichens.

You might see:
1. rocky outcrops and chalk or limestone pebbles
2. ant hills of the yellow meadow ant
3. scattered scrub of different ages
4. birds like stone curlews
5. butterflies like dingy skippers and brown argus

Question 225

You’ll find upland calcareous grassland on

Answer 225

shallow soils where hard calcareous rock, like limestone, is close to the surface.

This rock is sometimes exposed as limestone pavement or rock outcrops and scree. Upland calcareous grassland is usually above an altitude of 250 metres.

Question 226

Upland calcareous grassland in good condition is usually grazed and will have: (4)

Answer 226

1. short, springy turf with lots of mosses and fine grasses, like blue moor-grass,
2. wildflowers like horseshoe vetch, harebell and common rock-rose that flower and set seed each year,
3. a mix of long grass over 10cm and shorter patches less than 5cm,
4. no undesirable species, like common nettle, false oat-grass or injurious weeds.

Question 227

You’ll find lowland acid grassland on

Answer 227

nutrient-poor, free-draining soils over acidic rocks, peat, sands and gravels. It’s often alongside heath, scrub and woodland habitats.

It does not include areas of acid grassland on open moorland or in enclosed upland fringes.

Question 228

Lowland acid grassland in good condition is usually grazed and will have: (4)

Answer 228

1. wildflowers like tormentil, heath bedstraw, harebell and sheep’s sorrel that flower and set seed each year.
2. a variety of grasses, like sheep’s fescue, common bent and wavy hair-grass,
3. up to 10% bare ground for invertebrates to burrow into,
4. vegetation less than 10cm tall throughout the year.

Question 229

You’ll find purple moor-grass and rush pasture are

Answer 229

are wet, tussocky grasslands on permanently wet but not waterlogged soil. They are on neutral to acid soils and sometimes peaty soils that get a lot of rain.

Question 230

purple moor-grass and rush pasture can be known locally as (4)

Answer 230

1. culm grassland
2. wet lawns
3. fen meadows
4. litter meadows.

Question 231

Purple moor-grass and rush pasture in good condition will have: (6)

Answer 231

1. abundant purple moor-grass or jointed rushes,
2. wildflowers like ragged-robin, devil’s-bit scabious and lesser spearwort that flower and set seed each year,
3. no more than 25% cover of large sedges,
4. no more than 20% cover of large grasses like reed and tufted hair-grass,
5. vegetation that is 8cm to 25cm tall by October,
6. a water table at the surface in winter and 2cm to 48cm below the surface in summer.

Question 232

You can find calaminarian grassland on

Answer 232

soils with high levels of heavy metals like zinc and lead. 

Most plants cannot tolerate these toxic conditions, but some can thrive. It’s mostly found near historic mining sites which brought metal-rich material to the surface.

Question 233

Calaminarian grassland in good condition will have: (3)

Answer 233

1. short vegetation including fine-leaved grasses, flowers, mosses and lichens,
2. wildflowers like alpine penny-cress, sea campion and thrift that flower and set seed each year.
3. between 20% and 90% cover of lichens and bare ground, including cobbles and gravels.

Question 234

You should control injurious weeds and nettles if they cover more than what % of species-rich grassland?

Answer 234

5%

Question 235

Where there is scrub, it should be scattered across the grassland and cover between 5% and 10%. Scrub cover should be lower on: (3)

Answer 235

1. lowland wet grasslands for birds,
2. historic features in grassland,
3. Species-rich grassland is a rare habitat, so you should not let scrub spread onto it. Find out how to manage scrub and scrub mosaics.

Question 236

In the past lowland heathland was sustained by (2)

Answer 236

grazing and gathering activities such as fuel-turf and fuel-wood

Question 237

90% of what is left of lowland heathland is protected as

Answer 237

Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI).

Some areas also have the designation of Special Area for Conservation (SAC) and Special Protected Areas (SPAs).

Question 238

The lowland heathland support a range of plant communities adapted to

Answer 238

acidic, free-draining, nutrient poor soil

Question 239

Lowland heathland only occurs when a number of conditions coincide, they are: (3)

Answer 239

1. Climate – high, regular rainfall and cool conditions.
2. Soil type – sandy, mineral soil profile known as podsol.
3. Management

Question 240

Heathland vegetation is restricted to areas between how much mm of rainfall a year?

Answer 240

600mm and 1,100mm

The wetter west and the dry southeast fall within these limits.

Question 241

The soils found on heathlands are

Answer 241

impoverished and acidic, it is sandy and has a characteristic profile called podsol.

These occur when rainwater takes the minerals with the clay and organic particles down through the profile as it percolates through the sand. This process is known as leaching.

Question 242

Podzol / Heathland soils consist of 4 layers…

Answer 242

1. Organic litter layer
2. Top soil (plant roots) ‘A horizon’
3. Bleached sand ‘E horizon’
4. Leached organic matter ‘B horizon’

Where the soil drainage is impeded the E horizon contains clay, hence the term gleyed-podsol and the B horizon appears mottled. When the surface has waterlogged conditions this is ideal for mosses and stops plant material from decomposing leading to peat formation.

Question 243

Heather grows in low nutrient conditions so if nutrients are allowed to get into the surface then other plants will grow, compete and eventually take over turning into woodland. Nutrients come from (7)

Answer 243

1. Rain water.
2. Dung from livestock.
3. Root system from trees drawing up minerals from deep in the soil.
4. Decomposing plants.
5. Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
6. Symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi.
7. Some plants such as the sundew and pale butterwort even eat insects.

Question 244

Threats to heathlands include: (9)

Answer 244

1. Fire - urban areas, BBQs etc
2. People - eutrophication from dog waste, fly tipping, disturbance to birds and predation from cats near urban areas.
3. Airborne pollutants - nitrogen and ammonia - to the vegetation, particularly mosses and lichens
4. Over-grazing – In upland areas there has been damage done through high levels of stock grazing which has converted heathland to grassland.
5. Land drainage – Some of lowland heath has been drained threatening the wildlife that this habitat supports
6. Invasive plants – Other threats include grassland and bracken replacing heather. Birch, willows and pine are the main species of trees and scrub suppressing heathland. Bracken.
7. Erosion and enrichment of soils – people/motor vehicles/dogs and horses is soil erosion and trampling of vegetation. Soil enrichment from nutrients in dog/horse dung can lead to non-heathland vegetation
8. Alien plant species - rhododendron is difficult to eradicate and blocks out everything else out that tries to grow
9. Climate change - flooding and wild fires. Increases the risk of pests and diseases, puts stress on plants and animals which have specific requirements in this type of habitat to survive.

Question 245

The life-cycle of heather involves four stages. Individual plants can take 13-50 years to go through the cycle

Answer 245

1. Pioneer heather – up to about 6 years from seeding to bush, vertical growth.
2. Building heather – up to about 15 years old, dense lateral growth.
3. Mature heather – up to about 25 years old, growth slowing centre opening.
4. Degenerate – central branches collapse, allowing seedlings and other species grow.

Question 246

Grazing is an attractive option for heathland reserve management. A careful eye on grazing intensity should be kept with an offtake not exceeding what % of the current growth increment of heather otherwise it will decline.

Answer 246

30-40%

Question 247

You can graze heathland all year round. You’ll need to reduce livestock levels if (4)

Answer 247

1. there are no young heather plants.
2. between April and June if there are ground nesting birds.
3. there are few flowers in summer.
4. in winter to avoid poaching of wetter areas, like mires

Question 248

If using Livestock for conservation purposes you will need to look at (10)

Answer 248

1. Breed
2. Stocking rate
3. Watering
4. Feed
5. Fencing
6. Veterinary provision
7. Insurance
8. Staff for lambing, shearing, dipping etc (sheep)
9. Funding
10. Market for the meat

Question 249

Turf cutting was also known as

Answer 249

‘Turbary’

Turf or sod cutting to provide fuel. It not only removed the above-ground plant parts but also the surface (organic) layer of the soil as well. It had been used for a long period of time around the New Forest, Dorset, the Lizard peninsula as well as Surrey and East Anglia