HB CM Flashcards
Woodlands are shaped by (4)
- geology
- soils
- climate
- people over generations
People kept stock in the woodland and the grazing would help with the clearing and regeneration of the woodland. This then supported many other species of plants, invertebrates, birds and mammals.
Wood pasture
a large, densely wooded area
Forest
means an area that was subjected by the king to special law, called the forest law (game and hunting). Forests such as the New Forest, Forest of Dean and Sherwood Forest
How much plantation is in the UK?
2.2 million ha
out of 2.8 million ha of forest overall
BAPS
Biodiversity Action Plans
How much % tree cover does the UK have?
13%
Main types of Woodlands historical features (4)
- Archaeology – hillforts, settlement sites, buildings and routeways
- Past woodland management – charcoal burning platforms, saw pits and boundary banks
- Type of trees present – this can indicate past management e.g. holly or common hawthorn can indicate a period of grazing wood pasture
- Earthworks – Banks (wide or narrow) may be divides of land boundaries, lumps and bumps maybe old quarrying activity or even settlements
Management of forest aims to
create greater age and size class diversity
Cutting deciduous trees down in areas to create diversity of canopy as well as immature and clear areas
Coppice
What are the methods of coppicing? management (5)
- Reinstate or maintain rotational coppice
- Short to medium rotation (<12 years)
- Cut smaller coupes/panels one or more per year leaving the majority of the woodland still standing.
- Cut adjacent panels in succession which allows colonisation by other species.
- Rides are needed and retain mature standards/non-crop species for ecological value
What are the benefits for biodiversity of coppicing? (2)
- Creates open spaces for microclimate and invertebrates
- Birds will use coppice up to 10yrs old as it will have thicket habitat and a mix of species
How long does it take for a coppiced tree to be ready to harvest again?
7 - 20 years
What are the methods of Continuous Cover Forestry? (2)
- Allow a varied structure without clearfelling.
- Thinning can be used to create space which will encourage regeneration whilst retaining the majority as closed canopy.
What are the benefits for biodiversity of Continuous Cover Forestry? (3)
- A more diverse structure where some species benefit more from it the others.
- Retains shading and closed canopy favoured by some species.
- allows a reduction in problems posed by climate change and biotic threats such as fungal infections and protects the soil from erosion/disturbance and also contributes to locking up more carbon in the larger trees.
What are the methods of Minimal Intervention management? (5)
- Safety measures and boundary infrastructure are the only managed steps with successional processes being allowed.
- Make sure that the canopy does not crowd so the structure of the woodland needs to be viewed.
- Works best with areas of established/mature woodland with a variety of structure. These conditions are usually found in wet woodland where the water table helps with decay process/structural change.
- All dead and decaying wood should be left in place (unless a safety hazard).
- There are species which have specific requirements and this may need some management such as small group felling.
What are the benefits for biodiversity of Minimal Intervention? (4)
- Allows natural processes to occur. e.g ancient woodland which has associated flora, fauna and fungi.
- Rich communities of ferns, mosses, lichens and fungi can thrive.
- Dead wood invertebrates thrive.
- Usually high biodiversity.
What are the management methods of Clear fell and Open Habitats? (7)
- sometimes large compartments of trees are felled in one go. Felling in this way creates a patchwork of temporary open spaces which support certain species. It can be very disruptive at the time but particularly with felling conifers and allowing natural regeneration of broadleaves has benefits in the end with more biodiversity.
- normally used in conifer plantations when a crop needs to be taken but can also be done in broadleaf woodland. These types of woodland often lack biodiversity due to single tree species and less diverse structure.
- Creating rides and glades and encouraging scrubby vegetation along these external edges has a lot of benefit for different species.
- Leaving some areas of trees to develop old growth, large trees and deadwood can also add variety and wildlife value.
- Re-growth can be impacted by over-grazing by dear which can deter regeneration and leave a permanent gap.
- Try to minimise disturbance from public and dog walkers as this can impact ground nesting birds.
- Also try to manage operations in with the correct time of year so not to impact nesting bird season.
What are the benefits for biodiversity of Clear fell and Open Habitats? (1)
As the scrub grows it creates habitat and food for birds, invertebrates including butterflies.
nightjar, woodlark, ground flora and butterflies.
What are the management methods of dead and decaying wood? (4)
- Provide fallen deadwood in different areas in your woodland such as damp areas, sunny areas and dry shady areas. This process can be done during other management techniques such as coppicing or felling.
- Leave lengths of wood to rot down and decompose. If you’re going to leave in piles make big piles as these are more value than small ones to certain species.
- Standing deadwood is also beneficial so retain it if its present and if you have none you could use ring-barking on those trees you decide are right (different sizes help).
- Dead branches on live trees are great for wildlife. Be selective when targeting felling operations and leave some on (as long as its safe).
What are the benefits for biodiversity of dead and decaying wood? (2)
- Fallen deadwood is good for fungi and invertebrates and also provides food and shelter for birds, amphibians and small mammals.
- Standing deadwood is good for specialist invertebrates such as long-horn beetles and in turn for woodpeckers. Cavities are good for bats.
GAP
The Grazing Animals Project
Conservation grazing is a less intensive form of land management used on areas which
are less productive (commercially)
Conservation grazing involves the use of which animals (4)
- cattle
- sheep
- equines
- pigs
When choosing a grazing species what needs to be considered? (3)
- Feeding preferences
- Physiology
- Animal behaviour
Conservation grazing exists to encourage benefits for (3)
- wildlife
- landscape
- cultural heritage
Conservation grazing is most commonly used on (2)
- nature reserves
- sites of high conservation value, such as species rich grasslands
The Grazing Animals Project is a
network of farmers, land managers and conservation organisations in the UK that are committed to promoting the benefits of grazing with the natural environment with cultural heritage in mind
Conservation grazing helps conserve semi-natural habitats including (3)
- grassland
- heathland
- pasture-woodland
Trampling creates areas of bare ground which helps plant regeneration and it benefits species such as (2)
- Sand Lizard (Lacerta agilis)
- Tiger Beetle (Cicindela campestris).
The dung from the animals also supports how many insects?
over 250
Farmers and landowners, are encouraged to use their stock for conservation grazing through the
Environmental Stewardship Scheme
Cow grazing characteristics: (4)
- removing long, coarse grass. The tussocky grass left is beneficial to insects and small mammals.
- not selective so graze on a patch rather than individual plants. (avoid rushes) creates a diverse flower-rich sward.
- create bare ground and trample bracken and low scrub, break up mats of dead litter and create pathways through dense vegetation.
- browse on trees and twigs by a tearing action rather than nipping with their teeth.
Sheep grazing characteristics: (5)
- Sheep graze by nibbling and eat very close to the ground forming a short sward.
- Often accused of overgrazing this is usually due to over stocking. With lower stocking they produce a variation in structure with some areas closely grazed and others not touched.
- They can browse most things but they do need some grass available for their diet needs. particularly useful on species-rich chalk grasslands
- They readily go into scrubby vegetation but are less well suited to tall vegetation than cattle and horses. Can create bare ground and well worm paths.
- Seem to prefer taking flower heads so this can be problematic in species-rich swards in the long-term
Ponies and Horses grazing characteristics: (4)
- selective grazers tending to create shorter ‘lawns’ and areas of taller, undisturbed vegetation.
- In some situations they might be better coupled with cattle.
- They prefer grass but New Forest Ponies can consume large quantities of bracken.
- Can tolerate bad weather and are tolerant of insects
Pigs grazing characteristics: (5)
- reduce ground layer density whilst disturbing the soil - allows creation of seed beds burying some tree seeds amongst the many that they eat.
- low stocking levels - rooting action can be beneficial, reducing rank vegetation and encouraging seedling germination. Pigs are also good for managing bracken and Rhododendron which they can eat without being poisoned. rambles, Nettles, Couch Grass and Wild Roses and cover a wide area efficiently.
- high stocking levels - impact can result in a complete removal of ground cover, including tree seedlings and seasonal flora such as bluebell and pignut, and even severe damage to mature trees.
- used in conservation grazing (mainly in woodland). They can be a useful tool which used to be carried out by Wild Boar.
- carry out Pannage which is where they are released into woods in the Autumn to feed on fallen acorns and nuts.
The Maximum Stocking Density is calculated as
an annual average figure by adding up the number of animals on the land at the 15th of each month and dividing by 12
85% of Heathland has been lost over the past 150 years through (2)
- agricultural development and
- planting of conifers
The UK is home to roughly how much of all lowland heathland in the world?
one-fifth
What bird species are associated with heathland? (3)
- Dartford Warbler
- Nightjar
- Hobby
What mammals use heathland? (5)
- rabbits
- hares
- dormice
- weasels
- stoats
What Reptiles that are found on heathland? (6)
- Common Lizard
- Adder
- Sand Lizard
- Slow Worm
- Smooth Snake
- Grass Snake
What Butterflies can be found on heathland? (4)
- Small Copper
- Common Heath
- Grayling
- Silver Studded Blue
Invasive pioneer species that need controlling on heathlands include (2)
- Birch
- Pine
Since the WW2 how much chalk grassland has been lost?
80%
Which specie of orchid that only grow on chalk grassland? (2)
- pyramidal
- bee orchids
There has been a decline of what % of species-rich neutral, acid and chalk grassland in less than a century?
97%
Flora within chalk grassland will depend on many factors including (4)
- past management
- drainage
- aspect
- stocking density of grazing animals
What are two management styles to be avoided on chalk grassland?
- under-grazing
- no grazing
as this allow coarse grasses and scrub to dominate
What are the two management techniques used on chalk grassland?
Grazing
Cutting / Mowing
What do you need to consider when grazing chalk grassland? (4)
- Exclude livestock May-August
- Graze Sept-Dec do not overgraze. Apr-May to control scrub.
- Rabbits will graze so measure impact
- Late flowering plants will be affected by grazing so rotate the grazed area.
What do you need to consider when cutting / mowing chalk grassland? (4)
- Cut July-mid Sept
- Remove cutting annually as dead vegetation will smother seeds and allow nutrients to build
- Cut different sections at different times of the year
- Do not apply fertilisers
What are the reasons conservation grazing is important for Heathland? (4)
- It maintains a mosaic heathland structure.
- The weight of the animals can be used to supress bracken growth and they can graze unwanted woody plant species.
- Provides areas of disturbed ground which benefit different species of insects and reptiles.
- Provides structural diversity and species richness of the vegetation
What are the reasons conservation grazing is important for grassland? (3)
- An open and varied sward can be achieved
- With a mixed grazing scheme the different impacts the animals have on the landscape will have numerous benefits for both flora and fauna.
- A good management technique which isn’t too labour intensive to manage.
What are the 6 main types of protected areas / official designations in the UK?
- National Nature Reserves
- Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty
- Sites of Special Scientific Interest
- Special Areas of Conservation
- Special Protection Areas
- National Parks
Established to protect some of our most important habitats, species and geology. They offer great opportunities to schools, specialist groups and the public to experience wildlife first hand and to learn about nature conservation
National Nature Reserves
How many NNRs are there in England?
224
94,400 hectares Largest - The Wash
Land originally protected by the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 and latterly additional protection under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (CROW Act). It protects land to conserve and enhance its natural beauty
Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty
Criteria for a Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty is (6)
- Landscape quality, where natural or man-made landscape is good quality.
- Scenic quality, such as striking coastal landforms.
- Relative wildness, such as distance from housing or having few roads.
- Relative tranquillity, where natural sounds, such as streams or birdsong are predominant.
- Natural heritage features, such as distinctive geology or species and habitat.
- Cultural heritage, which can include the built environment that makes the area unique, such as archaeological remains or historic parkland.
Covered by the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and contain important habitats such as species-rich grassland, heathlands, bogs and ancient woodland, all of which need to be protected
Sites of Special Scientific Interest - they are considered of high ecological or geological value
How many SSSI does England have?
England has over 4,100
4,200 square miles
Protected areas in the UK that are of European importance
Special Areas of Conservation
To conserve the habitat of certain rare or vulnerable birds (listed in the Directive) and regularly occurring migratory birds.
Special Protection Areas
How many SPAs does the UK have?
284
New Forest, North Norfolk Coast, Pagham and Pool Harbour, Salisbury Plain, Thursley/Hankley and Frensham Commons
Large areas of land that are protected by law for the benefit of the nation.
National Parks
1949 National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act
Have their own planning authorities
How many National Parks are in the UK?
15
10 in England 10%
3 Wales 20%
2 Scotland 7.3%
Under the WCA act it is an offence to do what to plants?
uproot any wild plant without permission, this includes plants without roots
Under the Theft Act 1968 it’s also an offence to do what to plants
dig up plants and use them for commercial use
(this includes plants, trees, shrubs, soil, peat and gravel)
Under common law it’s not an offence to do what to plants?
pick fruit, foliage, fungi or flowers as long as it’s for personal use, the person is not trespassing, they are not offered for sale and that they are not protected by law.
There is a list of endangered plants which are listed on Schedule 8 in the WCA which says you cannot
pick, uproot, cause destruction or sell them
What are two of the plants on the WCA Schedule 8 list?
Bluebells and Primroses (only against being sold)
Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 protects what animals? (9)
- Wild birds
- bats
- otters
- many reptiles and amphibians
- wild cat
- pine marten
- dormouse
- some moths
- butterflies
- other invertebrates
Schedule 1 lists around how many rare and protected birds?
70
Badgers are protected under the
Protection of Badgers Act 1992
Under protection of (Schedule 2) of the Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2019. It is illegal to do what? (3)
- Intentionally or deliberately kill, injure or capture the species.
- Deliberately disturb the species, whether in a place of rest or not.
- Damage, destroy or obstruct access to a place of rest.
When managing woodland you may need to fell some trees and to do this you would need to apply for a licence from the
licence from the Forestry Authority
When managing woodland you may need to fell some trees you do not need a licence when (6)
- The felling is in accordance with an approved plan under a Forestry Commission grant scheme.
- The trees are growing in a garden, orchard, churchyard or public open space.
- The trees are all below 8cm in diameter measured 1.3m above the ground; or in the case of thinnings, below 10cm in diameter; or in the case of coppice or underwood, below 15cm in diameter.
- The trees are interfering with permitted development, or statutory works by public service providers.
- The trees are dead, dangerous, causing a nuisance or are badly affected by Dutch elm disease.
- The felling is in compliance with an Act of Parliament – the Forestry Act 1967
A tree preservation order is given to
safeguard trees with significant amenity value
Any type of tree can be given a TPO with exemptions of
hedges, bushes and shrubs
There are a number of surveys you can do with a woodland including (7)
- Ancient Tree Survey
- Woodland Habitat Survey
- Ancient Woodland Indicator Species Survey
- Phase 1 Habitat survey
- Bat survey including assessing trees for potential bat roosts
- Bird survey
- Protected species survey – badgers, dormice, nesting birds
There has recently been worrying declines in some woodland species such as (3)
- Ash (Ash die back)
- Elm (Dutch Elm disease)
- Oak (Acute Oak decline)
When do you survey for ground flora?
April and June
When do you survey for Ancient Trees?
Winter
When do you survey for breeding birds?
March to June
When do you survey for Fungi?
September - November
What ecological factors do you look for when surveying woods? (4)
- Tree and shrub species – Identify and record tree and shrub species present and note if there are stand groups, isolated trees or shrubs, veteran trees, dead or dying and fallen trees or deadwood. Any features suitable for bats such as woodpecker holes, splits or peeling bark.
- Vertical/horizontal structure of the woodland – This could influence what wildlife may be present. How dense/thin is it, is there a shrub layer and ground flora. Is it heavily shaded?
- Glades, Rides and Woodland margins – These sunnier and warmer spots within the woodland are often very species rich especially for invertebrates such as butterflies.
- Fauna – Comment on birds, mammals, insects and anything you may have seen or heard.
What physical factors do you look for when surveying woods? (6)
- Access – Location and condition of roads, rides, public rights of way, stiles, gates, bridges and comment on condition and suitability.
- Slope and aspect – Indicate compass points and direction of ground slope.
- Boundaries – Indicate hedge and tree species, wood banks, and types and condition of any fencing.
- Drainage/watercourses – Indicate locations and directions of ditches, streams and rivers and their condition to be able to carry water effectively.
- Previous management – note any planting, fencing, coppicing, felling, clearance work.
- Historic indicators and features – locate, identify and photograph ditches with banks, old large tree stumps, old coppice stools.
To create standing deadwood you will need to ring bark the trees by
making two cuts around the tree’s trunk using a chainsaw. This is usually done roughly a foot from the ground for the first one and about four inches above that for the second. Remove the bark from the tree between these two lines and this will result in the tree dying.
Which trees coppice the best?
- hazel
- sweet chestnut
- ash
- lime
Coppiced woodland tends to be divided into parcels called
coups (coop) and they are cut on a rotation of usually 8-20 years
Coppicing beniefits which ground flora? (4)
- bluebells
- wood anemone
- wild garlic
- violets
When coppicing you should (7)
- Clear any shrubs or dead wood and trimmings away and make sure you leave the stump and roots intact so they can regrow
- Remove any young growth around the outside of the stump.
- Stems up to 8cm diameter can be cut straight through.
- Stems up to 15cm diameter should be undercut in the front (side facing the direction of fall) before cutting through from behind (for safety).
- Cut an angle of 30-45 degrees from the horizontal, or trim the stump afterwards.
- This work should be done between September and March (outside the bird nesting season)
- Protection around the stump will be needed (especially new growth) as deer, squirrels and rabbits will graze new growth. Brash fencing can be used around a group of stools using the brash resulting from the coppicing
openings in the canopy within woodlands and can either be coppiced or managed as grassland and shrub
Glades
Linear trackway usually designed for access in woodlands
Rides
Vegetation zones such as a central track or pathway, then taller grassland or wild flower areas either side and then bramble and shrubs into taller trees - ecotone
Which creatures benefit from rides and glades? (8)
- dormice and other small mammals
- dragonflies
- birds
- reptiles
- bees
- butterflies
- moths
- Bats
Thinning trees in woodland is used for?
removing some of the poor, weak, diseased or overcrowded trees to benefit what is left
Management plans for woodlands last how long
20 - 100 years
Objectives for managing woodland can be (6)
- Maintaining or creating new wildlife habitats
- Producing timber
- Regenerating woodland
- Enhancing or rewilding woodland
- Increasing biodiversity
- Providing public recreation or employment
Types of water bodies… (3)
- Lakes / Lochs and ponds
- Rivers, Streams and Estuaries
- Wetlands
The wildlife found in lakes and ponds depends on
the geological nature of the drainage basin
Water in the Scottish lochs is soft and contains a low mineral content - it supports less plant and wildlife species.
The low-lying lakes tend to be slightly warmer and have a greater nutrient level bringing with it the wildlife and plant life.
Wetlands the richest for wildlife but under threat from (4)
- Water pollution, mainly from agriculture.
- Sea level rises
- Declining ground water due to over abstraction
- Climate change is also a threat with raising temperatures and unpredictable rainfall
Fens and bog need what to avoid the peat drying out
to be fed by rain/ground water
Water (aquatic) plants are divided into four main categories
- Shoreland plants like to have their roots in very damp soil
- Emergent plants like to have their roots and lower stems in water, they tend to be on the edges of the water where it is shallower
- Submerged plants live entirely underwater with maybe some leaves at the surface. They have their roots in the soil at the bottom of the pond or river
- Floating plants do not root in the soil but are floating.
Some types of shoreland plants are (8)
- meadowsweet
- marsh marigold
- hemlock water dropwort
- water mint
- ragged robin
- yellow flag iris
- alder
- willows
Some types of emergent plants are (4)
- reeds
- bulrush
- arrowhead
- brooklime
Some types of Submerged plants are (3)
- water lily
- fringed lily
- Canadian pondweed
Some types of floating plants are (2)
- frogbit
- duckweed
Some types of birds found around water are (10)
- Little Grebe
- Grey Heron
- Little egret
- Mute Swan
- Mallard
- Coot
- Moorhen
- Reed warbler
- Reed bunting
- Sedge warbler
Some types of mammals found around water are
- otter
- water shrew
- mink
- water vole
- Chinese water deer
- soprano and Daubenton’s bats
Otters are predators with large home ranges of up to
40km
Reptiles and amphibians found around water are (9)
- palmate newt
- smooth newt
- great crested newt
- common toad
- natterjack toad (ephemeral pools on sand dunes and sandy heaths)
- common frog
- pool frog
- marsh frog
- grass snake
Fish found in UK fresh water (12)
- salmon
- trout
- eels
- lamprey
- tench
- roach
- rudd
- bream
- carp
- pike
- sticklebacks
- minnows
Invertebrates found in fresh water include
- dragonflies
- damselflies
- water beetles
- shrimps
- pond snails
- pond skaters
- water scorpions
- caddis flies
- daphnia
- cyclops
lentic water is
static
lotic water is
flowing
Lentic water habitats include (6)
- Ponds
- Canals
- Reservoirs
- Ditches
- Dew ponds
- Moats
Lentic obtain their water from? (2)
- rainfall as they are mostly landlocked, this could be straight into the water or from draining from the ground.
- Drains built or leats to draw water from a nearby lotic habitat to help sustain the water levels
What are the three types of permanence of Lentic water habitats ?
- temporary - not constant and during the dryer months other species will use them, creatures that use this habitat must be adaptable to migrate when there is less water
- semi-permanent - seasonal - ditches which fill up with water during the wetter seasons
- permanent - big ponds and lakes where the temperature is cool and there is a good level of rainfall
Lentic habitats will have water characteristics that depend on (4)
- The source and quality of the water
- underlying geology
- level of nutrients
- pH
Very few nutrients and offer little in which to sustain life. Bacteria is found here and only suits some species which are adapted to this environment.
Oligotrophic
Water with beds of submerged vegetation and medium levels of nutrients.
Mesotrophic
Area of water rich in mineral and nutrient properties. Normally have a covering of algae which can be a problem to other species.
Eutrophic
The water is acid and poor in nutrients limiting vegetation and creatures that can survive. Often very boggy areas and associated with peat.
Dystrophic
Lotic water environments include (5)
flowing ecosystems
- streams
- rivers
- creeks
- brooks
- springs
Lotic water ecosystems can be divided into two parts based on the speed of water flow and the rate of flow:
- Fast flowing aquatic environment - rapids
- Slow moving aquatic environment - pools
Why carry out freshwater surveys? (9)
- describe the diversity of invertebrates in the water to determine water quality
- describe the diversity of invertebrates and how they vary between pools and riffles or rapids in a stream.
- determine if the invertebrate diversity of a stream changes with distance from a source.
- determine abiotic factors and how they change in the stream with distance from the source.
- compare invertebrate diversity in a stream over time with regular monitoring.
- find out if the variation in diversity related to abiotic factors.
- Establish if invertebrate diversity varies between different parts of a pond.
- find out which part of a pond has the highest invertebrate diversity?
- To help decide how a pond should be managed.
There are two methods of fresh water sampling - what are they?
- Sweep netting
- Kick sampling
What is the method for kick sampling? (5)
- suitable for shallow running water with a gravel or muddy bottom
- Standing in the stream facing downstream, hold a fine-mesh net under the water
- kick the substrate at the bottom of the stream, dislodging the substrate and any invertebrates in the direction of the net
- always take the first sample at the lowest point upstream, then work back upstream
- Standardise - The time you spend kicking at each site (e.g. 30 seconds), the area of stream bed that you sample at each site (size).
What is the method for Sweep netting?
- In still water such as a pond, or if the water is too deep to enter safely, stand on the bank
- vigorously sweep a net in the water, ideally tracing out a figure-of-eight shape.
- Standardise - time you spend sweeping at each site (e.g. 30 seconds), the volume of water that you sample at each site
How much of UK rivers UK fail to meet required health standards and face multiple threats?
over three quarters
How much species-rich grassland have we lost in the UK?
97%
We have lost many different types of species rich grassland due to agricultural development including (5)
- herbicides
- organic fertilisers
- ploughing
- over grazing
- draining of grasslands
Grasslands cover how much of the earth’s land area?
20-40%
Who first used the phrase “ecosystem”?
Sir Arthur Tansley
What model proposed that prehistoric ‘wildwood’ formed a continuous canopy of trees dominated by oak although pollen found in the 1950s showed a more complex picture and that dominant trees could have been lime rather than oak?
Continuous Woodland Model - Sir Arthur Tansley
What model proposed that the competing influences of munching herbivores and growing vegetation produced a cycle of succession from trees to scrub to grassland and back again. This so-called ‘Vera-cycle’ leads to a stable but dynamic equilibrium between open grazed areas and closed canopy woodland areas, much like we see on the African plains.
Grazed Forest Model – Franz Vera (2000)
In what period was there a clearance of forest and an increase in range-land, river valleys were cleared for people to settle and there was extensive sheep farming. All this led to the development of semi-natural poor grassland. During this time there were developments in mixed agricultural systems.
Neolithic period
In what period were techniques such as grazing, cutting and burning of newly created grassland would have arrested succession and in doing so made conditions suitable for the plants , animals and introduced species adapted to grassland to thrive.
Early agricultural period
What are the Abiotic factors that effect grasslands? (3)
- Soil moisture and pH - meters can be used pushing a probe into the soil and reading the meter. pH can affect fertility and a lot of acid grasslands have had lime added in the past to increase fertility.
- Temperature - measured with a thermometer for air temperature and a probe for soil temperature
- Light intensity - Light meters can be used to get a measurement. Grasslands are really adapted for full sunlight.
What are the Biotic factors that effect grasslands? (4)
- some biotic factors include producers, consumers and decomposers
- Competition for environmental resources, disease and food availability.
- Grazing leads to dominant plants outcompeting other species, too much grazing decreases the level of biodiversity
- high numbers of prey such as rabbits or deer can lead to overgrazing resulting in loss of biodiversity
What are the categories of Lowland Grassland in Britain? (5)
- Mesotrophic (Neutral grassland) - within enclosed field systems on moist mineral soils.
- Calcareous - Steep slopes of limestone or chalk. These grasslands are generally used for grazing sheep and cattle.
- Acidic - occur on acid rocks (sandstones) or associated with upland peaty soils or with dwarf shrub heath communities as a result of heavy grazing and burning techniques.
- Fen meadows / Rush pastures - occur on peat and mineral soils on level ground and gentle slopes. The water table is normally quite high and near to the surface most of the year. They are used to graze cattle during the summer but can also be cut for bog hay.
- Calaminarian - occurs when there is heavy metals in the soil such as lead and zinc and is found around places where mining takes place.
Species rich grasslands can have as many as how many species of wildflower within a square meter?
30
What plant species may be seen in unimproved grassland in spring and summer? (6)
- orchids
- cowslip
- ox-eye daisy
- common knapweed
- bird’s foot trefoil
- red clover
What common plants can be found on grassland? (6)
- Cow parsley
- Oxeye daisy
- Cocksfoot grass
- Meadow foxtail
- Yorkshire fog
- Cowslip
What species of orchid can be found of species-rich grasslands? (10)
- Common spotted
- Bee
- Early purple
- Pyramidal
- Burnt
- Marsh
- Heath spotted
- Fly
- Butterfly
- Broad Heath Helleborine
What diversity of species might you find on grassland? (10)
- Rabbit
- Skylark
- Meadow pipit
- Knapweed
- Meadow buttercup
- Oxeye daisy
- Field grasshopper
- Common blue butterfly
- Brown Argus
- Meadow Brown
What butterflies are found on grassland?
(‘brown’ butterfly larvae feed on grasses)
- Meadow brown
- Common blue
- Ringlet
- Gatekeeper
- Small copper
- Wall brown
- Brown argus
- Clouded yellow
- Small heath
- Large skipper
What are Specific threats to grasslands? (8)
- Poor agricultural practices – removal of species-rich grasslands, re-seeding, inorganic fertilisers
- Ploughing up grassland as part of the farm rotation destroys the fungal mycorrhizae in the soils which help capture nutrients naturally.
- Monocropping
- Toxic pesticides
- Grazing livestock – Sympathetic grazing can reduce competitive plants and allow wild flowers to grow.
- Global warming – In some parts of the world it will eventually turn grasslands into deserts. A rise in temperatures could mean grassland gets scorched and die off.
- Development of urban areas
- Invasive species
What are the solutions to grassland problems? (4)
- Education – educate the next generation and the farming industry on how to protect soil and prevent erosion.
- Funding to farmers to encourage developing more biodiverse ecosystems on farms.
- Protect and restore wetlands – protect this environment which is an important part of grassland ecology and encourage more wet grasslands.
- Reduce grazing pressure to allow wild flowers and grasses to set seed.
A true wildflower meadow is an area of grass…
maintained by an annual hay cut and grazing. It is made up of perennial, biennial and annual plants (species that grow and flower each year).
Species within a true wildflower meadow include: (15)
Grasses
1. crested dog’s-tail
2. sweet vernal grass
3. yorkshire fog.
Daisy
4. knapweed
5. oxeye daisy
6. cat’s-ear
Pea and vetch
7. red clover
8. bird’s-foot trefoil,
9. bush vetch
10. sainfoin
Others
11. buttercups
12. meadow crane’s-bill
13. lady’s bedstraw
14. cowslips
15. wild carrot
Meadows and other species-rich grasslands now cover how much of the UK?
less than 1%
Carbon held in the deep peat soils of fens and raised bogs hold how much carbon as the equivalent area of tropical rainforest?
eight times
Heathlands and grasslands store more carbon than…
modern agricultural landscapes but less than peatlands, saltmarsh and old woodlands.
The land area of the UK under agriculture is
72% around 17.6 million hectares
How much of farmland species are now on a decline?
60%
Environmental Land Management Scheme (ELMS) is part of the…
The Path to Sustainable Farming: An Agricultural Transition Plan 2021 to 2024
Environmental Land Management Scheme (ELMS) has 3 parts…
- Sustainable Farming Incentive (SFI) - pay farmers for taking actions above minimum legal requirements to promote wildlife diversity, use water efficiently, enhance hedgerows and manage croplands and grasslands, while continuing to use their land for production
- Local Nature Recovery Programme - pay for actions that support natural recovery in local areas, such as creating, managing and restoring natural habitats, peat or wetland areas, and hedgerows. It will encourage co-ordination between different farmers.
- Landscape Recovery Scheme - will support long-term changes to land use, such as large-scale tree planting and peatland restoration projects. Proposals sent in by individuals or groups and Defra selecting those with most potential
To meet the government’s environmental goals, Defra is aiming for at least what % of farmers, covering at least what % of farmland, to take part in SFI
70% & 70%
The Environmental Land Management Scheme (ELMS) will be introduced over what period?
2021–2028
Arable Field Margins provide what for wildlife? (5)
- nest sites for ground nesting birds such as grey partridge, Whitethroats, Yellowhammers, Corn buntings.
- provides overwintering habitat for many insects
- important for pollinators which will be attracted by the wildflowers
- small mammals use these areas such as voles and mice.
- support flowering plants which produce seeds for birds to eat
Drainage channels provide what for wildlife? (4)
- The channels that are wet all year round are the ones that support the most wildlife.
- good for wetland plants, invertebrates (e.g. dragonflies) and birds (e.g. moorhens).
- Larger channels can support fish, amphibians and some bigger mammals such as otters and water voles.
- grass strips either side of the channels can increase the wildlife found on the farm. It can help to stop agricultural runoff and help stop the spread of weeds.
Farmlands extensively grazed grassland can be used for wildlife by (3)
- Making sure there is pasture that contains flowering dandelions provide seed for bird species such as Linnet and Goldfinch. This is also helpful in the winter when invertebrate feeders come to grazed grassland such as Starlings and Thrushes.
- By reducing stock density levels you can increase the amount of nesting areas for birds such as lapwings, curlews, skylarks and yellow wagtails.
- extensive grazing of the fields which have high water table or wet flushes help support redshanks and snipe.
What animals use farm buildings? (6)
- Bats
- House martins
- swallows
- barn owls
- kestrels
- insects on ferns, mosses and lichens
Hay Meadows on farmland provide what for wildlife? (3)
- cut once the flowers have set seed, allow birds to finish nesting season and allowing the flowering plant species to set seed before cutting. Mid-July onwards is best.
- Plant species can include meadow foxtail, lady’s bedstraw, common knapweed, ox-eye daisy, wild carrot and meadow buttercup. Some of the best examples of this habitat can support up to 45 species per square meter!
- This habitat also has a great invertebrate diversity
Over-wintered stubble is good for (4)
- Birds like skylark and yellowhammers need this type of habitat which provides a good seed resource.
- supports species such as brown hare and rare arable plants.
- will help and slow declining numbers of farmland birds.
- reduce winter soil erosion.
Hedgerows are good for
wildlife corridors, habitat and a food source for many species.
75% of the wildlife is found in the hedgerows!
Scrub is good for (4)
- include species such as hawthorn, blackthorn and, in damper areas, willow.
- supports a diverse range of species, particularly nesting birds and a variety of invertebrates.
- different growth stages from bare ground through to young and old growth including decaying wood.
- The nectar that the flowers provide attract the insects and the seeds and berries attract birds and mammals.
Opportunities to increase biodiversity within farming are (4)
- Grow more flowers – having plants that flower successively throughout the year means that there is food availability all year round for wildlife.
- Plant more trees and scrub – blackthorn, hawthorn and other woodland species are beneficial for nesting birds and carbon capture, in winter they help to protect soils.
- Create more ponds – ponds attract amphibians, a range of invertebrates, fish, birds and mammals. They are They work to control pests that eat crops. Ponds also attract moths and butterflies and can be home to many invertebrates.
- Manage hedgerows sympathetically – keep them untrimmed as late as possible to retain the berries and nuts in the winter for birds and mammals. Allow them to be bushy for nesting birds and invertebrates.
Two management options on farms are
- Wildlife friendly farming – tailoring practices to enhance populations of wildlife by creating a more integrated system. Avoiding pesticides and herbicides and over-managing the farm.
- Land sparing – this is where portions of agricultural land are managed intensively to increase yield, allowing other land to return to semi-natural state which can act as reservoirs of biodiversity.
Characteristics of biomes are defined by (3)
- latitude
- rainfall
- temperatures
There are 8 biomes they are:
- Tundra – found near the North and South poles. Very few plants and animals can survive here. Cold temperatures with permafrost beneath the surface.
- Taiga (coniferous forest) – found in Scandinavia, Russia and Canada. Evergreen trees thrive in this cool temperate climate.
- Temperate deciduous forest – found across Europe, USA, eastern Australia and Asia and in New Zealand. These trees lose their leaves every year and thrive in mild and wet conditions known as a temperate maritime climate.
- Temperate grassland – found in Hungary, South Africa, Argentina, Australia and the USA. Consists of grass and trees that thrive in a temperate continental climate of moderate rainfall and mild conditions.
- Chaparral or evergreen hardwood (Mediterranean) – found around the Mediterranean Sea, around Perth and Melbourne in Australia and California in the USA.
- Desert – found near the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Conditions here are very hot and dry and little can survive. Plants and animals are specially adapted to survive in the harsh conditions.
- Tropical rainforest – found near the Equator. The climate is hot and humid and many different species can be found here making this one of the most biodiverse biomes.
- Savanna grassland – found mainly in central Africa, southern India, northern Australia and central South America. Long grasses and a few scattered trees are found in these hot and dry conditions.
Locations of Tropical forests in order of size are:
- Brazil
- Congo
- Indonesia
- Peru
- Colombia
A tropical rainforest is a forest with a
high rainfall that grows in a tropical region – are found near the Equator and within the the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn
The world’s tropical rainforests hold as much as how much % of all the Earth’s species?
50%
Animals that live in tropical forest include:
South American - 1. caimans, 2. jaguars, 3. green anacondas, 4. boa constrictors, 5. harpy eagles, 6. red-eyed tree frogs and 7. howler monkeys.
African - 1. leopards, 2. African forest elephants, 3. gorillas, 4. chimpanzees, 5. okapis, 6. parrots and 7. hornbills.
Asian - 1. orangutans, 2. tigers, 3. Asian elephants, 4. crocodiles, 5. clouded leopards, 6. sun bears, 7. gibbons, 8. Malaysian tapirs and 9. slow lorises.
Rainforest plants that have stiff, spiked leaves which radiate out from a central point. The leaves channel rainwater into a pool at the center of the plant. This pool provides a habitat for animals such as frogs, whose tadpoles grow inside the plants.
Bromeliads
Deforestation is the main threat to this rain forests and this is taking place for because of: (5)
- Farming – pastoral farming for the demand of meat products and arable farming for cash crops such as soya beans.
- Logging – trees like mahogany chopped down and sold for timber and other trees are cut down for paper products.
- Mining – natural resources such as iron ore, copper, tin, aluminium and gold are extracted. The Carajas mine in Brazil is the largest iron ore mine in the world.
- Roads – construction for farmers, loggers and miners.
- Hydroelectric power – results in large areas of the forest being flooded for reservoirs and dams.
Impacts of rain forest deforestation are (4)
(Tropical hardwood trees make up much of the canopy and live in poor soils where nutrients are lacking but the nutrient cycle is carefully balanced.)
- Clearing the forest means most plants cannot survive in these soil conditions and this can leave the area prone to desertification and soil erosion.
- Burning trees releases carbon into the atmosphere. 3. The lack of shade and trees alters the temperatures and the rainfall cycles.
- The trees and plants contribute to the fight against climate change by capturing vast amounts of carbon and without them this contributes towards global warming.
Rain forest Sustainable management practices are (3)
- Logging and replanting – Planned and controlled logging ensures that for every tree logged another is planted. Carefully selecting specific trees allows the canopy of the rainforest to be preserved.
- International agreements – Agreements such as debt-for-nature between different countries help towards protecting the rainforests. When a country is owed money by another, part of the debt can be cancelled in the country owing the money if it does conservation work in the rainforest.
- Education/Eco-tourism – Promote the value of biodiversity associated with tropical rainforests and encourage sustainable tourism that pays for protection and conservation.
Temperate forests can be found in most temperate regions of the world where
climates have warm summers and cold winters
Deciduous and coniferous
Some plants thrive in very deep ocean water where they get no sunlight; these plants are called
phosphorescent, and they can produce their own light
How to ensure personal safety when working on private land…
- Make sure that you have the correct PPE
- always write a risk assessment taking into account all hazards such as weather, ground conditions and public access.
- Make sure that there is no lone working and if this can’t be achieved then ensure you have contacts locally that are aware of your plans.
- Make sure you have had correct training
- first aid kit and mobile phone with you
Grassland is species-rich if it has (3)
- more than 15 plant species per square metre
- more than 30% cover of wildflowers and sedges (excluding white clover, creeping buttercup and injurious weeds)
- less than 10% cover of white clover and perennial rye grass.
Types of species-rich grassland can include (7)
- Lowland meadows
- Upland hay meadows
- Lowland calcareous grassland
- Upland calcareous grassland
- Lowland acid grassland
- Purple moor-grass and rush pastures
- Calaminarian grassland
Species-rich grassland type usually depends on factors including (6)
- Underlying geology
- Soil pH
- Hydrology
- Management
- History
- Location
Species-rich grassland has a wider use (5)
- keeps soil healthy and carbon-rich
- protects soil from erosion
- provides a range of forage for livestock
- is part of the character of a landscape
- can be part of our cultural heritage where traditions and skills are maintained, like haymaking.
What three ways can we maintain species-rich grassland?
- graze (most important)
- cut for hay (if grazing not possible)
- cut to maintain grassy vegetation
A grassland that is under managed soon succumbs to
weeds such as nettles, brambles and thistles and tree saplings soon appear shading out the grassland
In species-rich grassland you should not (8)
- plough or reseed
- apply fertiliser, except to replace nutrients removed through haymaking
- change any drainage, other than cleaning and maintenance
- use pesticides
- use herbicides, except in limited situations where you need to manage injurious weeds or invasive non-native species
- change the soil pH
- compact the soil by grazing or using machinery when the soil is too wet
- supplementary feed the livestock
Weeds can harm livestock, agricultural productivity and the environment, but native weeds like nettles are important for biodiversity. You should manage these weeds so that they can provide their benefits but do not spread and cause problems. These ‘Harmful’ weeds are: (5)
- creeping thistle
- spear thistle
- common ragwort
- broad-leaved dock
- curled dock
INNS
Invasive non-native species
When you manage weeds in grassland well, you’ll: (5)
- improve yields
- improve hay quality
- protect your livestock’s health
- reduce or avoid herbicide use, which helps protect ground and surface waters
- meet your legal obligations to prevent the spread of harmful weeds.
When you allow weeds to flower but stop them from spreading (setting seed), you’ll (2)
- provide pollen, nectar and seeds for birds and invertebrates
- maintain the quality of species-rich grassland and high-value, low-input grassland
When managing grassland for weeds you need to be aware of: (4)
- a weed infestation may indicate underlying grassland management issues.
- if you struggle to fix severe weed problems, you may need to get advice from an ecologist.
- if you take areas like field corners out of production, you may need to act to stop the spread of weeds.
- prevent bare ground where these weeds can soon establish.
Bare ground will encourage too many weeds to grow. To prevent livestock creating bare ground, do not allow them to overgraze the sward. This can happen if you (4)
- keep high stock numbers
- use inappropriate stock
- graze one area for too long
- graze when it is really wet or waterlogged
To avoid nutrient enrichment, in species-rich grassland do not:
- deposit spoil, ditch cleanings or large amounts of dung onto the land
- let nutrients transfer from yards and buildings onto surrounding land
- add fertiliser
How do you manage weeds in grassland (5)
- good grazing
- with machinery
- by hand
- Limit herbicide use to spot spraying and weed wiping. If your land is part of a SSSI you must check if you need consent to apply herbicides before you start. 5. Try to ensure you do not allow the weeds to set seed and spread
When / how to use fertiliser on species rich meadows (6)
- Soil phosphate (P) levels need to be at index 1 or less
- Dung from grazing livestock will help return some nutrients to the soil. Use well-rotted farmyard manure to replace nutrients lost by cutting and removing hay or haylage.
- Apply no more than 12 tonnes per hectare of manure in a single year.
- Apply manure only every second or third year.
- Do not increase inputs above your current levels.
- Apply manure in spring to minimise nutrient losses and the risk of water pollution.
Where should sheep grazing be used? (2)
- lowland acid grassland
- calcareous grassland on thin soils
Aftermath grazing is…
light grazing following the hay cut up to about October, or no later than February
Grazing provides (4)
- late summer forage
- more nutrients for fields
- better germination as livestock trample seeds into the soil
- conditions for less vigorous species to compete with more competitive grasses
When should you remove livestock?
- when the average sward height falls below 5cm
- when the ground is too wet - reduces poaching
Cattle grazing Advantages (4) Disadvantages (5)
Advantages:
1. Cattle trample down and eat coarse grasses.
2. At lower stock densities they create a less uniform sward than sheep grazing.
3. Cattle tend to be more hardy around public places and where people walk their dogs.
4. Cattle can be used for their meat and if organic can reach a higher price.
Disadvantages:
1. Transport can be problematic.
2. Handling can be more difficult depending on age and breed.
3. Cattle are more expensive than sheep.
4. They require more food and water availability.
5. In wet conditions heavy trampling can cause poaching which can damage the soil structure.
Sheep grazing Advantages (4) Disadvantages (5)
Advantages:
1. Good at maintaining short turf.
2. Some breeds easy to handle.
3. Not bothered by public or well behaved dogs.
4. They can be used on slopes.
Disadvantages:
1. Can lose condition on poor grassland.
2. Some breeds more difficult to handle.
3. Can be difficult to sell the lambs.
4. They can escape.
5. Some sheep are known for health issues.
Horses / ponies grazing Advantages (4) Disadvantages (3)
Advantages:
1. Grazing horses or ponies support a diverse habitat for invertebrate due to the nature of their grazing as it creates patches in different places.
2. They will eat almost everything.
3 .Some varieties are more hardy such as Exmoor and Dartmoor ponies and also they need little care or supervision.
4. They can be used to reclaim/restore land that has been neglected.
Disadvantages:
1. They are selective with what they graze and may not always graze the species you wish to target.
2. It creates a untidy look as they tend to leave patches ungrazed.
3. They defecate in certain areas which adds nutrients to the grassland (sometimes unwanted).
Deer grazing Advantages (3) Disadvantages (3)
Advantages:
1. Deer meat is popular and they are used to graze grassland, sometimes large areas.
2. They can change what they eat and are less selective.
3. They can be used in different terrains.
Disadvantages:
1. Handling and looking after deer can be problematic.
2. They sometimes need extra feeding.
3. It can be costly keeping them contained with fencing
Haymaking is best suited to (2)
- land receiving no or low inputs of nutrients
- species-rich grassland
Benefits of making field-dried hay (8)
- reduce fertiliser costs compared to making silage.
- produce good quality winter forage for livestock.
- Species-rich green hay is very valuable for conservation grassland restoration projects.
- healthier, carbon-rich soils.
- better conditions for a large number and range of wildflowers, including rare species.
- more food, nesting and shelter for insects, birds, bats and small mammals.
- improved water quality.
- the cultural value of a traditional landscape.
Mowing grassland Advantages (3) Disadvantages (3)
Advantages:
1. Cutting grass late July allows the nesting period for birds to be undisturbed.
2. It allows flowers time to grow and set seed if mowing is carried out later.
3. You can feed livestock on the aftermath from September to November.
Disadvantages:
1. If the site is wet aftermath grazing can cause poaching from livestock.
2. If the site has public access you would need to find a way of containing the livestock.
3. May have access problems for farm machinery during inclement weather.
Flailing grassland Advantages (3) Disadvantages (3)
Advantages:
1. Flailing can tackle more woody scrub.
2. This technique can give the site a more natural look.
3. Flailing can be done quite quickly.
Disadvantages:
1. Difficult to use on uneven ground.
2. Difficult to use on wet/boggy areas.
3. It tends to cut everything so can also cut those wanted flower species.
Cut and collect grassland Advantages (3) Disadvantages (3)
Advantages:
1. It takes away unwanted nutrients from site.
2. It’s a quick technique to use.
3. Mowers can also tackle Bracken and scrub.
Disadvantages:
1. It will cut everything on site.
2. Need access for large machinery.
3. High maintenance cost for the machinery.
Swaling is a local term for the controlled burning or moorland and is carried out by farmers and land managers between
1st October and 15th April where sections are burned carefully on a rotational cycle. This technique encourages regeneration of vegetation.
What areas are suited to management by swailing?
Areas dominated by purple moor-grass. This grass leaves a dense dead thatch which supresses other smaller plants
Swaling is governed by two things
- The Grass and Burning Regulations
- agreement that exists between the landowner and Natural England (if SSSI).
These agreements are guided by the Heather and Grass Burning Code 2007
Swailing Advantages (3) Disadvantages (3)
Advantages:
1. Agriculturally this technique helps stimulate new growth.
2. This technique can be cheaper than other forms of management.
3. It can be done during the winter months.
Disadvantages:
1. Can lead to the spread of Tor Grass.
2. Fire can spread if not managed well and kill off species you want to keep.
3. It can bring a weed invasion and increase the nutrient levels.
Before grassland management methods can be decided upon the following Information is needed (3)
- Plant communities and plant and animal assemblages present (to decide conservation objectives).
- Site characteristics such as slope and aspect, sward structure, details of soil structure and drainage features.
- Recent and past management including has it been grazed, mown or burned? If grazed what species, number, breed, age and sex of stock used? How long were livestock on site each year and between what periods? Has there been supplementary feeding or use of fertilisers and herbicides? If the site has been mown is it annually, biennial or less, for how long was it closed and what date was it mown?
Factors you can (3) control with grassland management and those you can’t (4)
Controllable factors:
1. Standing crop / vegetation structure
2. Nutrient status
3. Hydrology
Uncontrollable factors
1. Climate
2. Natural population dynamics
3. Adjacent land use
4. Atmospheric deposition
How do you maintain lowland meadows? (2)
- as permanent pasture by grazing or by hay cutting and aftermath grazing.
- Aim for vegetation between 5cm and 15cm on average through the summer, unless the grassland is shut up for hay.
You may see birds like skylarks and a wide range of bees, butterflies and other invertebrates
A floodplain meadow in good condition will have (2)
- Tall, moisture-loving wildflowers like great burnet, meadowsweet and pepper saxifrage
- Maintained surface drainage that allows water to flow freely back to watercourses after a flood
A lowland meadow in good condition will have wildflowers like (3)
- yellow-rattle
- bird’s-foot-trefoil
- common knapweed
You’ll find lowland meadows on
free-draining, neutral soils.
Lowland meadows are the most common type of species-rich grassland and vary widely across the country.
Upland hay meadows in good condition are cut for hay and have: (4)
- wildflowers like pignut, great burnet and meadowsweet that flower and set seed each year.
- more than 50% cover of wildflowers and sedges.
- no more than 50% cover of rushes.
- a mix of vegetation heights while livestock are grazing the grassland
You’ll find upland hay meadows on
enclosed land between 200 metres and 400 metres above sea level.
If grazing in spring, maintain the vegetation at least 5cm tall. After cutting hay, graze until the vegetation is on average between 5cm and 10cm tall.
Lowland calcareous grassland can be known locally as
wolds or downs
Lowland calcareous grassland in good condition is usually grazed and will have (6) and you might see (5)
- wildflowers like bird’s-foot-trefoil, lady’s bedstraw and common rock-rose that flower and set seed each year
- herbs, like wild thyme, basil and marjoram,
- fewer coarse grasses, like tor-grass which can smother wildflowers,
- vegetation that is on average 5cm to 15cm tall in July and August,
- vegetation that is on average 2cm to 7cm tall by the time you remove livestock in spring,
- small patches of bare ground with mosses and lichens.
You might see:
1. rocky outcrops and chalk or limestone pebbles
2. ant hills of the yellow meadow ant
3. scattered scrub of different ages
4. birds like stone curlews
5. butterflies like dingy skippers and brown argus
You’ll find upland calcareous grassland on
shallow soils where hard calcareous rock, like limestone, is close to the surface.
This rock is sometimes exposed as limestone pavement or rock outcrops and scree. Upland calcareous grassland is usually above an altitude of 250 metres.
Upland calcareous grassland in good condition is usually grazed and will have: (4)
- short, springy turf with lots of mosses and fine grasses, like blue moor-grass,
- wildflowers like horseshoe vetch, harebell and common rock-rose that flower and set seed each year,
- a mix of long grass over 10cm and shorter patches less than 5cm,
- no undesirable species, like common nettle, false oat-grass or injurious weeds.
You’ll find lowland acid grassland on
nutrient-poor, free-draining soils over acidic rocks, peat, sands and gravels. It’s often alongside heath, scrub and woodland habitats.
It does not include areas of acid grassland on open moorland or in enclosed upland fringes.
Lowland acid grassland in good condition is usually grazed and will have: (4)
- wildflowers like tormentil, heath bedstraw, harebell and sheep’s sorrel that flower and set seed each year.
- a variety of grasses, like sheep’s fescue, common bent and wavy hair-grass,
- up to 10% bare ground for invertebrates to burrow into,
- vegetation less than 10cm tall throughout the year.
You’ll find purple moor-grass and rush pasture are
are wet, tussocky grasslands on permanently wet but not waterlogged soil. They are on neutral to acid soils and sometimes peaty soils that get a lot of rain.
purple moor-grass and rush pasture can be known locally as (4)
- culm grassland
- wet lawns
- fen meadows
- litter meadows.
Purple moor-grass and rush pasture in good condition will have: (6)
- abundant purple moor-grass or jointed rushes,
- wildflowers like ragged-robin, devil’s-bit scabious and lesser spearwort that flower and set seed each year,
- no more than 25% cover of large sedges,
- no more than 20% cover of large grasses like reed and tufted hair-grass,
- vegetation that is 8cm to 25cm tall by October,
- a water table at the surface in winter and 2cm to 48cm below the surface in summer.
You can find calaminarian grassland on
soils with high levels of heavy metals like zinc and lead.
Most plants cannot tolerate these toxic conditions, but some can thrive. It’s mostly found near historic mining sites which brought metal-rich material to the surface.
Calaminarian grassland in good condition will have: (3)
- short vegetation including fine-leaved grasses, flowers, mosses and lichens,
- wildflowers like alpine penny-cress, sea campion and thrift that flower and set seed each year.
- between 20% and 90% cover of lichens and bare ground, including cobbles and gravels.
You should control injurious weeds and nettles if they cover more than what % of species-rich grassland?
5%
Where there is scrub, it should be scattered across the grassland and cover between 5% and 10%. Scrub cover should be lower on: (3)
- lowland wet grasslands for birds,
- historic features in grassland,
- Species-rich grassland is a rare habitat, so you should not let scrub spread onto it. Find out how to manage scrub and scrub mosaics.
In the past lowland heathland was sustained by (2)
grazing and gathering activities such as fuel-turf and fuel-wood
90% of what is left of lowland heathland is protected as
Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI).
Some areas also have the designation of Special Area for Conservation (SAC) and Special Protected Areas (SPAs).
The lowland heathland support a range of plant communities adapted to
acidic, free-draining, nutrient poor soil
Lowland heathland only occurs when a number of conditions coincide, they are: (3)
- Climate – high, regular rainfall and cool conditions.
- Soil type – sandy, mineral soil profile known as podsol.
- Management
Heathland vegetation is restricted to areas between how much mm of rainfall a year?
600mm and 1,100mm
The wetter west and the dry southeast fall within these limits.
The soils found on heathlands are
impoverished and acidic, it is sandy and has a characteristic profile called podsol.
These occur when rainwater takes the minerals with the clay and organic particles down through the profile as it percolates through the sand. This process is known as leaching.
Podzol / Heathland soils consist of 4 layers…
- Organic litter layer
- Top soil (plant roots) ‘A horizon’
- Bleached sand ‘E horizon’
- Leached organic matter ‘B horizon’
Where the soil drainage is impeded the E horizon contains clay, hence the term gleyed-podsol and the B horizon appears mottled. When the surface has waterlogged conditions this is ideal for mosses and stops plant material from decomposing leading to peat formation.
Heather grows in low nutrient conditions so if nutrients are allowed to get into the surface then other plants will grow, compete and eventually take over turning into woodland. Nutrients come from (7)
- Rain water.
- Dung from livestock.
- Root system from trees drawing up minerals from deep in the soil.
- Decomposing plants.
- Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
- Symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi.
- Some plants such as the sundew and pale butterwort even eat insects.
Threats to heathlands include: (9)
- Fire - urban areas, BBQs etc
- People - eutrophication from dog waste, fly tipping, disturbance to birds and predation from cats near urban areas.
- Airborne pollutants - nitrogen and ammonia - to the vegetation, particularly mosses and lichens
- Over-grazing – In upland areas there has been damage done through high levels of stock grazing which has converted heathland to grassland.
- Land drainage – Some of lowland heath has been drained threatening the wildlife that this habitat supports
- Invasive plants – Other threats include grassland and bracken replacing heather. Birch, willows and pine are the main species of trees and scrub suppressing heathland. Bracken.
- Erosion and enrichment of soils – people/motor vehicles/dogs and horses is soil erosion and trampling of vegetation. Soil enrichment from nutrients in dog/horse dung can lead to non-heathland vegetation
- Alien plant species - rhododendron is difficult to eradicate and blocks out everything else out that tries to grow
- Climate change - flooding and wild fires. Increases the risk of pests and diseases, puts stress on plants and animals which have specific requirements in this type of habitat to survive.
The life-cycle of heather involves four stages. Individual plants can take 13-50 years to go through the cycle
- Pioneer heather – up to about 6 years from seeding to bush, vertical growth.
- Building heather – up to about 15 years old, dense lateral growth.
- Mature heather – up to about 25 years old, growth slowing centre opening.
- Degenerate – central branches collapse, allowing seedlings and other species grow.
Grazing is an attractive option for heathland reserve management. A careful eye on grazing intensity should be kept with an offtake not exceeding what % of the current growth increment of heather otherwise it will decline.
30-40%
You can graze heathland all year round. You’ll need to reduce livestock levels if (4)
- there are no young heather plants.
- between April and June if there are ground nesting birds.
- there are few flowers in summer.
- in winter to avoid poaching of wetter areas, like mires
If using Livestock for conservation purposes you will need to look at (10)
- Breed
- Stocking rate
- Watering
- Feed
- Fencing
- Veterinary provision
- Insurance
- Staff for lambing, shearing, dipping etc (sheep)
- Funding
- Market for the meat
Turf cutting was also known as
‘Turbary’
Turf or sod cutting to provide fuel. It not only removed the above-ground plant parts but also the surface (organic) layer of the soil as well. It had been used for a long period of time around the New Forest, Dorset, the Lizard peninsula as well as Surrey and East Anglia
