Gruppsykologi och ledarskap Flashcards
What is a group
Two or more people connected by a socially meaningful common cause.
Enligt Tajfels social identitetsteori:
En grupp är en eller fler personer som agerar utifrån samma värdering.
Four different types of groups
Primary, social, collectives, categories
Primary groups: Close associates, intimate bonds, heavy influence. Family, close friends etc. Often involuntary, such as family. Primary because they prime someone to go from being an individual to a social being. We get our behaviors, ideals and values from our primary groups, and we carry this with us into the social world.
Social(secondary) groups: Facilitate broader socialization with less familiar people, bigger groups often. Often more formal. Orchestras, sports teams, uni class groups, workers, sororities. Less permeable, easier to change groups.
Collectives; Less intricate association between bigger groups of people. Often arise as a result of experiencing something together with others, such as an event or a danger or other events. Groups dissolve as soon as the members separate.
Categories: Groups formed by a socially common characteristic. If a category bears no social implications it is merely a description of individuals who share a common feature. If the categories however set in motion personal and interpersonal activity, then it is a social category that is influential as a group. Social identity theory, we identify with our category and we look down on outsiders.
Social networks
Looser than group
One relationship enough
Fluid
Varied
More loosely formed than a group, need only have a relationship to one member of the network. More fluid, but also more varied.
Schismatic
Tendency to break into smaller groups.
Group activity - two types
Activities that support the task the group is doing. Task interaction.
Activities that strengthen, maintain or weaken interpersonal relations in the group. Relationship interaction, socioemotional interaction.
Interdependency
Flat hierarchy in groups
Sequential interdependency
Depending on others to accomplish something.
Flat, nonhierarchical structure with symmetrical groups are equally interdependent on each other and are very reciprocate. Rarely the case in groups.
Sequential interdependency - the actions of B depends on the actions of A.
Group structure
The complex of rules, norms, and intermember relations that shape the group.
McGrath’s circumplex model of group tasks
Generate
Choose
Negotiate
Execute
Generate - ideas to how the group will accomplish their goal.
Choose - which solution for which issue. Some have predetermined correct ones, others have a multitude of alternatives to solve the issue.
Negotiate - settle disputes regarding goals or decisions as well as competetive disputes.
Execute - doing things, or carrying out collective actions.
Planned and emergent groups
Some are founded, some are found.
External or internal origins for planned groups.
Concocted groups: Members of the group are not the ones who put it together.
Founded groups: At least one or two groups members are the ones who put it together.
Circumstantial groups: emergent, unplanned groups that arise when external factors align to set the stage for groups to come together. waiting at bus stop together, mob rioting and looting together, movie patrons at cinemas.
Self-organizing groups - implicitly adjusting one’s behavior whilst interacting with others, a group emerges with members that are interdependent of each other.
Unity and cohesiveness
Based on the commitment to the group’s goals that members are willing to submit themselves to. Individuals might not like each other but might experience powerful unity when devoting themselves together to the group cause.
Entitativity - does the group look like a group?
Perceived groupiness
Similarity, proximity, common fate
Good form - pragnaz
Permeability
Perceived “groupiness” of a group rather than real unity and cohesiveness.
Influenced by similarity, proximity, and common fate(similar behavior and similar mannerisms) as well as as good form (pragnanz) and permeability. If it looks like it is a group then it is perceived as a group.
If you think a group is real, then it becomes real. It leads to real consequences for observers and alleged members.
Group dynamics
The influential, moving, interpersonal processes that occur in and between groups over time.
Influence processes
Persuasion
Compliance
Conformity
Obedience
Social influence
Norms
Social comparison
Group dynamics
Informational influence
Normative influence
Minority influence
Many group processes transform individuals into a cohesive group. One of many is influence, who do we listen to, what norms do we submit to and who can we influence?
Persuasion: Using communication to change opinions.
Compliance: Agreeing to requests due to social pressure.
Conformity: Adjusting behavior to fit social norms.
Obedience: Following orders from authority figures.
Social Influence: Impact of others on thoughts and actions.
Norms: Shared rules guiding behavior in a group.
Social Comparison: Evaluating oneself by comparing with others.
Group Dynamics: Influence within groups.
Informational Influence: Changing based on others’ information.
Normative Influence: Conforming to gain social acceptance.
Minority Influence: Small groups affecting the majority.
Performance processes
What facilitates and inhibits performance in groups?
Social Facilitation
Collective goals
Synergy
Task allocation
Social support
Neg:
Coordination
Conflict
Social loafing
Group think
Free riding
Groups outperform individuals when the group boosts the individuals’ motivation.
Social facilitation: The presence of other’s makes us more resilient to stres, boosting performance, by boosting motivation, focus and arousal.
Collective goals: Working towards clearly defined collective goals with clear directives might give a sense of direction and motivates members to exert themselves to perform at their best.
Task allocation: When each member’s competence is properly allocated then they can all excel at what they’re best at. This leads to optimization
Social support: Working together, the members can motivate each other and provide emotional support.
Neg:
Coordination difficulties can lead to inefficient work, scattering the members.
Conflict: Working together can lead to conflict, which can take time to resolve and sometimes goes
Social loafing: Members might exert themselves less because they think their individual contribution might do little in the grand scheme of things.
Groupthink: Ineffective decision-making because of high cohesion which results in conformity and lack of critical thinking, where each member just acts or speaks as other’s enforcing status quo.
Free riding: Benefitting from the work of the other members without contributing anything themselves. Leads to resentment and lack of motivation in other group members.
Conflict processes
Intra-/Intergroup conflicts
Power struggle
Distribution of resources
Competition
Disagreement
Personal antipathy
Actions or beliefs of group members that are unaccepted give rise to intragroup conflicts. Intergroup conflict arises when we deem outgroups to have acted wrongly. Most common reasons are power struggle, distribution of resources, competition, disagreements and personal antipathies.
Contextual processes
All groups are contingent on contextual factors that influence the group.
Formative processes
What processes affect the formation of groups?
the need to affiliate facilitate the formation of groups.
Group mind
Collective behavior, thoughts and decision-making processes that differ from individual ones
Shared identity & consciousness
Can lead to group-think
Shared norms and values
The concept of a “group mind” refers to the idea that when individuals come together in a group, they can collectively exhibit behaviors, thoughts, or decision-making processes that differ from their individual actions. It suggests that groups can develop a shared identity or consciousness that influences their actions as a cohesive unit. This phenomenon can be seen in various contexts, such as groupthink in decision-making or the emergence of shared norms and values within a social group. The notion of a group mind underscores the idea that group dynamics can shape individual behavior and cognition within the context of a collective.
Group norm
Group level
Descriptive
Injunctive
The norm lies at group level and not individually. It is established and then maintained, even when members leave and new ones join.
Norms are shared assumptions about what goal-driven behavior is. There are descriptive norms, that explain the order of things.
Injunctive norms (föreskrivande) describes idealistic behavior (normativity)
Heteronormality - e.g the notion that heterosexuality is the normal way to be.
Heteronormativity is the notion that hererosexuality is seen as the normal way to be whilst also taking into account how this norm affects society and individuals.
Micro-, meso- and macro level analysis
Individuals
Group level
Societal context
Micro level: studying individuals in the group and their characteristics and behavior.
Meso-level factors are group-level qualities of the groups themselves, entitativity, unity, cohesiveness, composition and structure.
Macro-level factors are ones that encompass the group such as communities, organizations or societies.
Participant observation
Observing as a researcher whilst taking part in the group’s social processes.
Mentalisering
Implicit - Utan att medvetet reflektera kan vi konstant få en för- eller omedveten förståelse “cykla känslor”. Procedurell mentalisering.
Explicit - Avsiktlig, medveten, ofta vad vi menar med “reflektera”.
Kognitioner och emotioner och deras förhållande sinsemellan
Rörelse behövs, tänka om känslor medan de pågår
- Tankar utan känslor innehållslösa ev felaktiga (affekt som information)
- Utan tanke har vi oreglerad affekt som inte ges mening och sammanhang
Utvecklingsnivåer - Teleologisk hållning
Handlingar förstås enbart utifrån deras konsekvenser.
Barn försöker ta hand om sina föräldrar så barnet kommer med en bukett av dåliga blommor och mamman har då dålig mentalisering och kan inte sätta sig in i intentionen bakom handlingen så då är barnet elakt för resultatet var dåligt trots god avsikt.
- Hon kom sent alltså bryr hon sig inte om mig
- I behandling - oförmåga att förstå och bedöma bakomliggande processer, överdriven tillit till externa kriterier
Utvecklingsnivåer - psykisk ekvivalens
2-åringen tröstar pappa med snorig snuttefilt
Jag är rädd, alltså är du farlig
Jag är osäker därför dömer du mig
Jag känner mig dålig, därför dömer du mig
Flashbacks - patienter med trauma kan förflyttas tillbaka till sitt trauma och tror att den inre upplevelsen är ekvivalent med yttre verklighet
I behandling - definiera patientens behov utifrån sina egna projektioner. Oerhört farligt för då kan vi lätt hamna i felaktiga slutsatser och kass behandling.
När patienten kollar bort och döljer ansiktet, skamligt beteende.
Utvecklingsnivåer - låtsasläge
Tankar och känslor hålls åtskilda
- Lek - pinnen är ANTINGEN ett gevär ELLER en pinne
Psuedomentalisering- ändlöst pratande om tankar och känslor utan subjektiv upplevelse av det man snackar om - intellektualisering, man pratar ihjäl något utan att faktiskt känna något. Problematiskt för terapi, skapar distans mellan det som man bör uppleva och en själv.
Icke-autentiskt sätt att utgå från normer, upptagenhet av regler, essentialism.
I behandling - mer upptagen av behandlingsstruktur/manual än av patienten, man utgår mer från regelverk än att känna in den faktiska verkligheten i terapirummet.
Hypermentalisering
Överattribuera mentala tillstånd hos andra eller hos sig själv, “excessive theory of mind”, intellektualisering - kontrollbehov?
Göra långtgående antaganden om andras eller egna mentala tillstånd på ingen eller lös grund.
Hypomentalisering - UNDVIKANDE BETEENDE
Andra är obegripliga
Tvärsäkra antaganden utan medvetenhet om andra
Oförmåga till kontakt med egna och eller andras inre tillstånd -
Sociometry
Measuring social relations between group members.
Sociogram
Diagram of the relations between group members. A visual representation of social relationships within a group.
Social network analysis
A set of procedures for studying the relational structure of groups and networks graphically and mathematically.
Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing and Adjourning
Forming is initial orientation adn socialization - getting to know each other.
Storming is the period of conflicts when there are power struggles as well as when group members are trying to find their place in the group.
Norming is the period in which roles have been established and the group structure has cemented. It’s also a time for establishing norms and group cohesion.
Performing is when the group is effective and productive.
Adjourning is the dissolution of the group.
Factors influencing group cohesion
Shared goals
Leadership
Threats
Performance
Factors like shared goals, leadership as well as external threats can influence group cohesion. More cohesive groups work better together.
Leadership theories
Trait, Behavioral, Contingency, Transformational/Transactional,
Trait theory: Focuses on identifiying inherent qualities of an effective leader.
Behavioral theory: Examines the actions and behaviors of effective leaders.
Contingency theory: Recognises that leadership depends on the actual situation.
Transformational and transactional leadership:
Transformational leadership inspires and motivate members of the group whilst transactional leadership focus on rewards and punishment.
Different styles of group decision making
Different methods include consensus, majority vote and expert decision-making.
Factors that influence group decision making
Group cohesion
Size
External threats
Leadership style
Group cohesion, size and external threats as well as leadership style.
Conflict resolution
Cause, Strategies for resolution and Role of the leader
Differing values and beliefs/attitudes as well as goals and communication styles
Collaboration. negotiation, compromise, avoidance
Conflict resolution - guiding it
Causes of conflict: Can be different views on goals, values or communication styles.
Strategies for resolution: Negotiation, Compromise, Collaboration and avoidance.
Role of a leader: Crucial in managing and resolving conflicts
Power and influence
Source of Power
Types of power
Influence tactics
Source of power: Can come from reward, coercive, referent, legitimate and expert sources.
Type of power: Different types of power can be used to influence others.
Influence tactics: Techniques used to influence behavior of others.
Influence tactics
Soft ones:
Rational persuasion
Inspirational appeal
Consultation
Collaboration
Ingratiation
Personal appeals
Apprising
Hard ones:
Pressure
Legitimacy
Exchange
Silent authority
Rational persuasion - Using logical arguments, facts and reason.
Inspirational appeal - Appealing to emotions, values and aspirations to inspire commitment.
Consultation - Involving others in the decision-making process to gain support.
Collaboration - Emphasising collaboration for the mutual benefit of both parties.
Ingratiation - Using flattery, compliments or charm to win favor.
Personal appeals - Seeking compliance based on personal relationships or loyalty.
Apprising - Providing information on how a decision benefits the individual or the group.
Hard ones:
Pressure - Using demands, threats or intimidation to influence others.
Legitimacy - Relying on authority, rules or policies to justify a request or decision.
Exchange - Offering rewards in exchange for compliance.
Silent authority - Using non-verbal cues or symbols of authority to influence.
Legitimacy
Exchange
Silent authority
A priori-group
A group formed intentionally based on certain criteria or characteristics, often predetermined before genesis.
Ad-hoc group
A group formed for a specific, often temporary, purpose or task. It comes together as needed and disbands once the task is completed.
Affiliation
The tendency or need of individuals to associate with or be connected to others in social groups, motivated by the need for socialising and companionship.
Attachment to group (group attachment style)
Refers to the emotional bond or connection individuals have with a group. Attachment styles may vary based on personal experiences and perceptions of the group.
Attraction relations
The interpersonal attaction and liking among group members, influencing the overall dynamics and cohesiveness of the group.
Babble effect
Increase in non-relevant or off-topic communication within a group, which can hinder effective decision-making or task completion.
Bales equilibrium model
Task/Socio-emotional behaviors
A model that explores the balance between task-oriented and socio-emotional behaviors within a group, developed by Robert Bales.
Task-oriented and cohesion-oriented group behavior.
Comparable to task-oriented and relation-oriented leadership.
Basking in reflected glory - BIRG
When members of a group associate themselves with the success or accomplishments of a group, contributing to their own self-esteem.
Bona-fide group
Structure, purpose, recognised membership.
A genuine or legitimate group formed with a clear purpose, structure and recognised membership.
Coercive power
Conflicts
Rebellion
Disrupted personal relations
Revolutionary coalitons
The ability to influence others through the use of threats, punishments or negative consequences.
Use of this power tactic is correlated to increase of conflicts in a group, more members rebel against the leader(the ripple effect), disrupted interpersonal relations and revolutionary coalitions.
Cohesion/Cohesiveness
The degree of unity, togetherness and mutual attraction among group members. High cohesion is often associated with positive group dynamics.
Cohesion to performance and vice versa
The relationship between group cohesion and performance. High cohesion may positively impact performance, and performance success may influence group cohesion.
Collaborative circle
A group or team characterised by cooperative and coordinated efforts to achieve common goals.
Collective
Group interests important
A cultural orientation or societal value that emphasises the interests and goals of the group over individual interests.
Collective consciousness
Shared beliefs, values and awareness that characterise a group or society, shaping it’s identity and influencing member’s perceptions.
Collective efficacy
The shared belief of a group concerning their abilites, confidence in these and that they can be successfully used to execute actions and produce desired outcomes collectively.
Collective effort model
Relative deprivation
Efficacy beliefs
Identification with group
Social networking and resources
Cost-benefit analysis
A psychological model that explores how individuals evaluate their contributions to a collective task based on perceived fairness, equity and the anticipated outcomes. Social movements, protests etc.
Relative deprivation: There needs to be a perception of a gap between current situation and desired situation.
Efficacy - there needs to be a sense of capability to perform the necessary actions in order to achieve one’s goals.
Identification with group: The more one identifies with a group, the more likely is it that one will exert themselves to reach the collective goal.
Social networking - If one feels that they are able to mobilize enough people or they feel they are in touch with the right people and are influenced by these people, they’re more likely to engage in prosocial behavior and stand up for social justice.
Cost-benefit analysis - One must feel that they’re not sacrificing too much when partaking, and instead winning a lot in their endeavour.
Commons dilemma
A situation in which individuals acting in their self-interest, deplete shared resources, leading to a collective disadvantage.
Comparison level
The standard against which individuals evaluate the outcomes and rewards of their relationships or situations. If it is not deemed reasonable - the reward that is, they will start to doubt the relationship.
Contact hypothesis and extended contact hypothesis
The idea that increased contact between social groups can reduce prejudice and improve intergroup relations. Extended contact involves learning about positive interactions between members of one’s own group and members of another group. This also facilitates reduction of prejudice.
Contingency theory/model - 3 factors
Leadership theory suggesting that the effectiveness of a leader depends on the interplay between leadership style, the characteristics of followers and the situation.
Leadership style, characteristics of followers
Situation
Covert observation
Research method involving the observation of subjects in their natural environment without their knowing of being observed.
Cutting of reflected failure CORF
Psychological defense mechanism where individuals distance themselves from a person or a group experiencing failrue to avoid negative associations.
Dark triad
Narcissism, Machiavellianism and psychopathy, associated with manipulative and unethical behavior.
Delphi technique
Structured communciation method which favors anonimity of participants whilst avoiding need to meet in real life. It is used to seek consensus or gather expert opinions on a particular topic.
Experts individually chime in on a subject anonymously and then they get the compiled input of all their peers and get to evaluate their original standpoint to see if they want to amend their statement. Through this process, consensus is achieved which leads to expert decision-making.Takes a lot of time.
Disjunctive and conjunctive task
Disjunctive tasks relies on the performance of the group’s most skilled member whilst conjunctive tasks rely on the performance and collective effort of the group.
Dual concern model
A model in conflict resolution that considers the competing concerns of self-interest and the interest of others.
Dynamic groups
Refers to study of forces and processes in groups.
Egocentrism
Tendency to view the world from one’s own perspective, often leading to difficulties in understand other’s viewpoints.
Elaboration principle
Persuasion theory
The notion that persuasion is more likely to occur when a person actively reflects and elaborates on information presented.
Embarresed misery avoids company
A psychological phenomenon where individuals experiencing embarrassment or failure may avoid social interactions to protect their self-esteem.
Entitativity
Perception of a gorup as a coherent and distinct entity, influencing the degree of group identification and behavior.
Equality and equity norm
Equality norm emphasises equal distribution whilst equity norm focuses on fairness based on individual contributions and needs.
Ethnocentrism
Tendency to evaluate other groups or cultures based on own cultural standards, leading to biases in many cases.
Evaluation apprehension
Concern that individuals have about how others are evaluating them. This can affect performance.
Evolution theory on leadership
Examines how leadership behaviors and traits may have evolved over time to contribute to the survival and success of groups.
Experience sampling
A research method where participants are prompted to record their thoughts, feeligns or behaviors at various points in time, providing a more immediate and ecologically valid understanding of their experiences.
Face culture
The shared expectations, norms and behaviours related to interpersonal communication and interaction within a particular social or cultural context.
FIRO - Fundamental interpersonal relations orientation
Theory developed by William Schutz that explores individual’s needs for inclusion, control and affection in interpersonal relationships. It also describes how these needs influence behavior in groups.
Inclusion: The need to establish and maintain connections with others.
Control: The need to have influence or power over others, or conversely, to be controlled by others.
Affection: The need to give and receive emotional closeness, warmth, and support in relationships.
Followership 4 Different types
Conformist
Passive
Alienated
Effective
Conformist followers: Focus on maintaining harmony in the group and just agreeing.
Passive followers - Unassertive and lack initiative. Avoid taking responsibility.
Alienated followers - Unengaged, distanced and cynical followers that result from perceived lack of recognition, reward or alignment with the group’s goals.
Effective followers - Proactive, engaged, take initiatives and contribute positively to the group by offering ideas, providing constructive feedback and supporting the group’s objectives.
Fundamental attribution error
Tendency to attribute other’s behavior to internal intrinsic factors instead of considering external factors.
Great Leader Theory
Innate , Influential , Historical Significance, Heroic, Various fields
A historical perspective on leadership that emphasises the role of extraordinary individuals (great leaders) in shaping the course of events.
Innate Characteristics: The theory posits that great leaders are born, not made. It emphasizes innate qualities and personal attributes that are natural, rather than skills and abilities developed over time.
Influential Leaders: According to this theory, these leaders have a disproportionate impact on history due to their personal capabilities and innate qualities.
Historical Significance: The theory asserts that these individuals shape history through their personal influence and actions. They are seen as the primary drivers of events and changes in history.
Heroic Leadership: The Great Man Theory often characterizes these leaders as heroic, larger-than-life figures who rise to the occasion during periods of crisis or opportunity.
Leadership Across Various Fields: While often discussed in the context of political or military leadership, this theory can be applied to leaders in various fields, including business, religion, and social movements.
Group Fallacy
The mistaken belief that characteristics or behavior of an individual are representative of the entire group.
Group potency
Shared belief within a group that they can be effective in achieving their goals in a specific task, contributing to group cohesion and performance.
Group reference effect
Tendency for individualds to use the a social or cultural group they identify with as a standard against which one’s own behavior and opinions are compared.
Hawthorne effect
Subjects of investigation and observation will perform better because they are aware of being observed.
Groupthink
When group members prioritise consensus and conformity over critical thinking and dissenting opinions that actually evaluate the situation accurately and adequately.
Hazing
Abusive, harrassing or humiliating initiation ritual one must undergo to become part of the group.
Hierarchy of needs
Same thinking as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, but now applied to group’s needs for belongingness, esteem and self-actualization.
Interaction process analysis
Communication patterns
A research method that analysis the interaction between group members in terms of communication patterns.
Interdependence
The extent to which individuals in a group or elements of the group rely on and affect each other, emphasising the interconnectedness of group members.
Interpersonal complementarity
Complementing behaviors of other group members
Complementary pattern of interaction
The way in which group members adjust their behavior to complement the behavior of other members, creating a complementary pattern of interaction.
Collective self-esteem
The emotional evaluation of one’s group or community.
Law of small numbers
The tendency to draw conclusions from a small sample of information, assuming that it reflects the larger population.
Leader-member exchange theory/ Vertical dyad linkage theory
A leadership theory that focuses on the relationship between individuals and the leader, emphasising the quality and nature of these exchanges.
Can be divided into two different types of relations:
In-Group relationships.
High quality exchange with close trust.
Members of the in-group have more responsibilites, autonomy and access to resources.
Out-group relationships:
More formal and transactional relationship.
Members of the out-group may receive less attention, support and developmental opportunities compared to those in the in-group.
Leadership emergence
Traits, Behaviors, Power/Influence, Situational factors, Social id. role
The process by which group members naturally assume a leader role - affected by different factors:
Traits
Behaviors
Power and influence - use of tactics to contribute to emergence of leadership. Taking initiative, displaying effective communication skills etc.
Situational factors may affect who becomes a leader, what the situation needs guides the emergence.
Social identity and role theory - individuals who identify much with the group are more likely to emerge as leaders.
Networks and social capital affects as well.
Gender and diversity - norms regarding who is more likely to be perceived as a leader.
Crisis and change - can give rise to emergence of stable leaders who provide direction and effective solutions - populism??
Leadership personality characteristics
Confidence, agency, autonomy, decisiveness, integrity, adaptability, care of subordinates.
Least preferred coworker scale
A scale developed by Fred Fiedler to measure leadership style based on the leader’s least preferred coworker, indicating whether a leader is task-oriented or relationship-oriented.
Leaders who score high on this scale are more people-oriented and leaders who score low on this scale are task-oriented.
Legitimate power
Refers to the power a person holds as a result of their position and duties within an organization. Based on the formal authority given to them.
Lewin’s B= f(P, E)
Behavior is a function of the person and their environment.
Lucifer Effect
This term describes how good people can be turned to perform evil actions given the right circumstances. Highlights the situational variables and systemic structures over individual dispositions in influencing behavior.
Mimicry
Mimicry refers to the unconscious imitation of the speech, mannerisms, behaviors or actions of others. Can be a part of social interaction and can foster affiliation or empathy.
Minimal intergroup situation (minimal group paradigm)
Refers to the notion that a sense of community and belongingness can be created solely by giving individuals an arbitrary common denominator, such as the same colour of their shirt. Shows that we create in- and outgroup biases based on “minimal” group distinctions.
Minimax principle
Decision-making
Uncertain situations
In decision-making, this theory suggests that people strive to minimize loss and maximize gain in uncertain situations.
Misery loves company
Theory that suggests that people suffer less when they know others are suffering too.
Mixed-Motive situation
In game theory and psychology, this refers to scenarios where interests of individuals both coincide and conflict - where there is gain and loss in helping each others. Each party has something to gain and to lose from working together.
Need for affiliation
A human need for social interaction, companionship, and belongingness. People with high need for affiliation tend to seek out and maintain close relationships.
Need for intimacy
A desire for close and meaningful connections with others, characterised by emotional opennes and vulnerability.
Need for power
A psychological need to influence, control or have an impact on the environment and surrounding people.
Need to belong
A fundamental human need to be part of social groups, experience social acceptance and feel connected to others.
Nominal group (and technique)
A structured group decision-making technique where participants generate and evaluate ideas individually before discussing them as a group. Reduces groupthink and promotes varied and diverse input.
Norm
Shared expectation or standard of behavior within a group. Norms can be explicit or implicit and influence group member’s actions.
Obedience
Complying with authority or orders.
Different effects of obedience include the authority gradient and the obedience-altering factors studied by Milgram.
Authority gradient
Concept related to obedience and refers to steepness of hierarchical relationship between individuals within an organization or group. It describes the extent to which authority is concentrated at the top or distributed throughout the hierarchy.
Ostracism
The exclusion or rejection of an individual from a group. Different theories explain ostracism, including the need-threat model and the social pain hypothesis.
Exclusion can trigger fight-or-flight response, a tend-and-befriend response (social reconnection) or in rare cases, violence targeting source of exclusion.
Cyberostracism also inflicts pain.
Need-threat model
Basic needs
SDO
Threats
Int.grp relations
hierarchies - status, legit
human needs
SDO
Perc. threat
Int. grp relati
Psychological framework that examines how social hierarchies and group dynamics affect intergroup relations, prejudice and discrimination. Explains why individuals and groups act to maintain their position in the social hierarchy when they perceive threats to their status or identity.
- Social hierarchies - some people have more status.
- Basic human needs: Positive group identity and self-esteem.
- Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) This trait reflects a preference for group-based hierarchy. Those with higher SDO tend to support social hierarchies.
- Perceived threats: When individuals or groups feel their status or identity is threatened, they may react defensively, leading to increased prejudice and discrimination towards others.
- Intergroup relations: The model considers how group dominance and perceived threats interact. High-status groups may be resistant to challenges to their position whilst low-status groups may seek change.
- Hierarchical legitimacy: People often justify social hierarchies as fair or necessary, which can lead to the acceptance of inequalities and discrimination.
Outgroup homogenity bias
A bias in which one perceives an outgroup as homogenereous whilst perceiving the ingroup as heterogeneous.
Overt observation
Observing subjects in a non-discrete manner, where subjects are aware of them being observed.
Paradigm
A framework or model that serves as a guide for research in theory in a particular field. Paradigms affect how researchers interpret information and how they pose hypothesises as well as how they approach problems.
Participant observation
A research method where the researcher partakes in the activities of a group or a context, where data is being observed in real time
Personality-Group Fit
The compatibility of a person’s set of personality traits and the chracteristics and demands of a specific group or organization.
Personal identity
The unique characteristics, beliefs and attributes that define an individual as a distinct person.
Power:
Legitimate
Coercive
Reward
Reference
Expert
Power bases are sources of influence, examples include legitimate power, reference power, coercive power, reward power and expert power.
Legitimate: Derived from the formal authority granted by one’s position. Other’s accept their influence based on their position.
Reward power: Based on an individuals ability to provide rewards or incentives to others. It involves the use of positive reinforcement to encourage compliance or cooperation.
Coercive power: The opposite of reward power. It relies on the ability to impose negative consequences or punishments to influence behavior. Individuals with coercive power can deter unwanted actions through threats or sanctions.
Expert power: Based on an individual’s knowledge, skills or expertise in a specific area. Those who possess critical or unique information can influence others by selectively sharing or withholding it.
Informational power: Related to access or control of valuable information. Those who possess critical or unique information can influence others by selectively sharing or withholding it.
Referent power: Comes from charisma, likability or attractiveness of an individual. People with referent power are admired, respected and often emulated by others who seek their approval.
Connection power
Derived from an individual’s social networks and relationships. People with extensive connections and alliances can influence others through their ability to provide access to valuable resources or opportunities.
Personal power
More about an individual’s personal characteristics. Such as confidence, assertiveness and self-assuredness. It stems from one’s own personality and interpersonal skills.
Positional power
Influence granted by possession of a position, whether it be legitimate power or other types of power that come with the position. Expertise, networking, information and personal qualities can all contribute to an individual’s power. Legitimate power can be seen as a sort of subset to positional power.
Prisoner’s dilemma
A classic game where two palyers can either cooperate or betray each other, leading to different payoffs based on their choices. Illustrates the tension between individual and collective interests.
Proximity principle
The tendency for individuals to form relationships with those who are physically close to them or geographically accessible.
Reactance
A psychological phenomenon where individuals resist or react negatively when they feel their freedom or choices are being restricted or threatened.
Reactivity
The phenomenon where individuals may change their behavior when they are aware of being observed, leading to altered or biased results in research.
Realistic group conflict theory
Sparse resources
A social psychological theory proposing that intergroup conflict arises when resources are sparse and there is competition for said resource.
Reciprocity norm (and principle)
The expectation that individuals will respond to kind actions with kindness, creating a norm of reciprocity that promotes cooperation and trust.
Reference group
A group to which individuals compare themselves, often influecning their attitudes, values and behavior.
Ringelmann Effect
A phenomenon in which individuals may exert less effort or motivation in a collective task compared to when they work individually.
Robber’s Cave Experiment
A classic social psychology study by Sherif and colleagues, demonstrating how intergroup conflict can be reduced through cooperative activites and shared goals.
Roles
Relationship and task
Formal and informal roles
Initiator/Contributor
Information seeker/giver
Opinion seeker/giver
Elaborator
Coordinator
Orienter - direction
Evaluator/Critic
Energizer
Recorder/Secretary
The expected behaviors, duties and responsibilites associated with a particular position or status within a group. Different types of roles include formal roles (e.g leader) and informal roles (e.g joker).
Initiator/Contributor: Proposes new ideas or approaches to solving group problems or goals.
Information Seeker/Giver: Asks for clarification, facts, and information from others, or provides facts and information to the group.
Opinion Seeker/Giver: Asks for or offers opinions and beliefs about the group’s tasks.
Elaborator: Expands on the ideas of others, offers examples, or looks at the consequences of the ideas.
Coordinator: Shows relationships between various ideas and suggestions, tries to coordinate the activities of various group members.
Orienter: Focuses the group’s attention on specific goals or objectives, and helps guide the direction of the group.
Evaluator/Critic: Analyzes and evaluates the ideas and suggestions of the group to ensure high-quality decisions.
Energizer: Motivates and stimulates the group to take action and make decisions.
Recorder/Secretary: Keeps track of the group’s ideas, decisions, and progress.
Scapegoat theory
Negative events
Distress
Vulnerable target without rational reason
A psychological theory suggesting that groups or individuals may be unfairly blamed for negative events or targeted for problems, conflics or societal issues. Suggests that this happens when there are times of distress and frustration, insecurity or dissatisfaction - then a vulnerable or convenient target is selected to blame for their troubles. Often without any rational or valid basis for doing so.
Secondary group
A larger and less intimate group characterised by less emotional attachment and more instrumental or task-focused relationships such as a workplace team.
Self-reference effect
Cognitive bias where individuals remember information better when it is personally relevant or connected to themselves.
Self-report
A research method in which participants assess themselves and report it, usually with the help of a form or scale.
Social comparison
The process in which one compares one self to other people, there is upwards comparison where we compare with people we deem to be better than us, which makes us sad. Downwards comparison involves comparing with people who are worse off - provides psychological relief.
Social dominance theory
A theory proposing that individuals and groups naturally seek to establish and maintain hierarchical social structures where some groups have more power, status and privileges than others.
Similarity principle
The tendency for individuals to be attracted to people with similar charactheristics, interests or values.
Self-stereotyping
The process by which individuals internalise stereotypes about their own social group, leading to self-perception and behavior consistent with those stereotypes.
Social comparison orientation
An individual’s tendency to engage in social comparison as a regular and habitual part of their self-evaluation.
Social exchange theory
A theory that views interpersonal relationships as a social exchange where the rewards and costs involved of maintaining a relationships are constantly weighed against each other - leading to the search of the most rewarding relationships.
Social facilitation and explanations
The presence of others impacts one’s performance on a task. Typically performance is heigthened on tasks that are routine and simple. Complex tasks or unfamiliar tasks are negatively affected by the presence of others.
Explanations:
1. Arousal theory or drive theory. The mere presence of others increases physiological arousal, leading to an increase in adrenaline secretion amongst other effects. The heightened state of arousal can enhance an individual’s performance on tasks they are familiar with or tasks with low cognitive involvement.
- Evaluation apprehension:
Being aware of the potential evaluation as a result of another person’s presence. This motivates an individual’s performance to gain approval and avoid embarrassment or criticism. Good for simple or well-trained tasks. Bad for complex tasks that lead to fear of making mistakes, leading to choking or underperformance when observed.
Social identity theory
Referent group
Self-esteem
Individual moblization
Gives context
Conclusions about ourselves
Small group - higher conclusion
Tajfel and Turner’s theory suggesting that individuals categorise themselves and then identify with said category, often used as a referent group. One’s self esteem can be derived from the positive status of their group. Can also lead to actions to strive for change if the group has negative status.
Identity is built both my personal identity and multiple social identities/roles.
Social identity gives a context and increases self-esteem. We draw conclusions about ourselves based on our groups. (Self-stereotyping)
The smaller the group, the stronger the conclusion. Homogenenity.
We shift groups to gain status, and if that’s impossible we try to challange or downplay other groups’ status.
Social interaction group
A group of individuals who communicate with each others, often with the purpose of accomplishing a mutual interest or task.
Social categorisation
The cognitive process of categorising individuals into categories or societal groups based on shared characteristics, leading to in-group and out-group distinctions.
Social loafing
Slacking when in a group due to sense of anonimity and reduced accountability.
Social network and social network analyis
A network of social relationships and interactions between individuals often represented as nodes (people) connected by edges(relationships). Social network analysis is a method to study these connections and their impact.
Social status
What is it and what affects it?
A person’s position or rank within a social hierarchy, often determined by factors such as wealth, power or prestige.
Social values orientation
Fairness
Cooperation
Social dilemmas
An individual’s preferences and priorities regarding fairness and cooperation in social interactions, influencing their choices in social dilemmas.
Social dilemmas
Situations where individual self-interests conflict with the collective interest of a group, leading to challenges in achieving cooperation and maximising group outcomes.
Social capital
The resources, networks and relationships that individuals and groups possess, which can be valuable for achieving personal or collective goals.
Sociometry
The study and measurements of social relationships.
Status characteristics - diffuse and specific
Attributes or traits that affect an individual’s perceived status within a group. They can be diffuse (general traits) or specific (task-related traits).
Diffuse characteristics: Considered to be universally valuable traits or attributes in a particular social context. These traits are not directly related to the task at hand but perceived as contributing to a person’s overall status or prestige within a group. Age, gender, ethnicity, group membracy.
Specific(Task related traits & atttributes): Traits or attributes deemed important for the specific situation or task at hand. E.g a heart surgeon’s advice when establishing a treatment plan for a person with cardiac issues.
Stereotype content model
A psychological model proposing that stereotypes about social groups can be characterised based on two dimensions: warmth (friendliness) and competence (ability).
Stress reaction related to threat and stress
Physiological reaction one experiences when confronted by a stressor or triggering situation, often leading to a fight or flight reaction.
Structured observation
A research method where observations are conducted systemically and according to predetermined criteria, often using checklists or coding chemes.
Sucker effect
A psychological phenomenon where individuals may reduce their effort in a group task if they belive others are not contributing equally.
Symlog - System for the Multiple Level Observation of Groups
Dominance-submission
Friendliness-Unfriendliness
Accepting-opposing task orientation/authority
A model and methodology used to analyse group dynamics based on three fundamental dimensions: dominance-submission
friendliness-unfriendliness
accepting - opposing task orientation/authority
Involves multiple levels of observation: Recognises that group behavior can be complex and multifaceted. Involves observation of interactions at three primary levels:
Affiliation: Emotional and interpersonal aspects of group behavior - cooperation, friendliness and solidarity
Control - Power dynamics, influence and authority including dominance, submission and
Involvement.
Synergy effect
The positive outcome that results from the combined efforts of individuals working together in a group, often leading to greater productivity or creativity than individual efforts alone
System theory
Interconnected, dynamic system
Group dynamics affect indivdual behavior
External factors affect as well
Feedback loops - reinforcing/correcting behavior
Emergence of group norms
Pursuit of balance (homeostasis)
An interdisciplinary approach that views groups and organizations working together in a group, often leading to greater productivity or creativity than individual efforts alone.
Sees groups as an interconnected, dynamic system where individual behaviors are influenced by group dynamics and external factors. Key concepts include feedback loops, emergence of group norms, and the pursuit of balance (homeostasis). Understanding these aspects helps analyse group behavior holistically and adapt to changes effectively.
Task leadership
Leadership focused on achieving specific goals, tasks or objectives within a group or organization
Tasks - maintenance tasks and task tasks
Maintenance works on group cohesion.
Task tasks focus on producing results that the group is designated for.
Tend-and-Befriend
Stress response
Social connection
Oxytocin
Gender differences
Adaptive function
A social and emotional coping strategy, often associated with females, characterised by seeking social support and nurturing relationships during times of stress.
Stress response - Fight or flight is associated with stressful situations but another one is the tend-and-befriend response.
Social connection: It is helpful to seek out emotional support in distressing situations and to gain help from others to ensure survival and well-being.
Oxytocin - Hormone that is released during social bonding, builds a sense of trust and connectedness.
Gender differences - Observed that men traditionally react with fight-or-flight and women tend-and-befriend.
Adaptive functions: Ensures survival by support of surrounding people - it facilitates emotional coping, social bonding and cooperation.
Tit-for-tat
A strategy in game theory where individuals respond to an opponent’s actions with the same action, promoting cooperation and reciprocity.
Trucking game
An experimental game used to study social exchange where participants negotiate over a fixed sum of resources.
Two-factor model of Leadership
Transactional and transformational
A leadership model that distinguishes between transformational and transactional leadership as two distinct factors influencing group outcomes.
Transactional:
Focus on day-to-day task management.
Rewards and punishment as incentive for good work.
Management by exception, only intervening when there are deviations from set expectations.
Transformational:
Inspiring and encouraging leadership.
Passionate - leading by example.
Want workers to improve and become enthusiastic about their work.
Ultimatum game (Experiment paradigm)
A widely studied economic game where one participant proposes a division of resources, and the other participant can either accept or reject the offer. It explores fairness and cooperation.
Unilateral power tactic
No negotiation, or asking for opinios or cooperating.
A strategy used to influence others that relies solely on the power of one party without negotiation or cooperation.
Wisdom of crowds
Judgement and decision-making
The idea that a diverse group’s collective judgement or decision-making can be more accurate and reliable than that of an individual.
Zeitgest theory
A concept suggesting that historical and cultural contexts influence the prevailing beliefs, values and attitudes within a society or group.
Group decision-making - Diffusion of Responsibility and Polarisation
Diffusion of responsibility: Groups tend to make riskier decisions because there is a sense of diffusion of responsibility.
Polarisation: Groups have more extreme views and decision-making because the group members reinforce each other due to the culture of the group, pushing each other and thus the group to extreme decisions.
Group structure
Cohesion, norms, roles and status relations.
These structures makes a group dynamic(real).
Nackdelar med hög group cohesion
Members become dependent on a static group structure and suffer when a group member leaves
Group can act negatively towards nonconformists.
Troubles with new members, decrease in productivity and also leads to conformity and group think,
How to measure cohesion
Correlates to stability and presence. Possible to observe and code behavior such as physical intimacy, shared time, clothing attire, emblems and usage of personal pronouns. Self-reports is often used, but also a multimodal approach to sociometry.
Mixed-motive situation
A situation in which individuals or parties need to make a decision in a matter that both partially alings but also conflicts with each other’s interests. There is also the possibility of cooperating but also of competing.
a) Prisoner’s dilemma: Three possible outcomes.
- They both cooperate, stay silent about the crime and are both sentenced to 1 year.
- One defects (confesses) and stays silent. Defector is off the hook but the silent one gets 5 years.
- Both defect and confess, they are both sentenced to 3 years.
b) Trucker’s game:
Two truck transporting companies have to decide whether to cooperate and make sure both businesses make money or try to maximize profit by undercutting each other but losing money long term by doing so.
c) Common’s dilemma: The Tragedy of the Commons
Shared resource that everyone has to share, if everyone tries to maximise self-interest and profit then the resource may be depleted and thus nobody will have access to the resource, resulting in a catastrophy for everyone involved.
Non-strategic and Strategic behavior
Non-strategic behavior: When none of the parties can threaten each other, they make their pricing and output decisions independently, without considering the actions of the other party (competitor). This results in the highest profit because they set their pricing and output levels without worrying about retaliation.
Strategic behavior: When setting their prices and output levels, companies need to consider the other company’s reaction, with the looming threat of retaliation. Therefore one tries to plan ahead by undercutting competitors, starting a race to the bottom where prices drop as well as profitability.
Tit for tat
Reciprocity in regard to both kindness but also to disruptive or negative behavior. Maintains and encourages cooperation and collaboration as good deeds are met with good deeds and bad deeds are punished which leads to the group acting cooperatively internally.
Three types of stereotypical leadership styles
- Autocratic: Organiserar, ger ordrar, håller sig till sig själv och till uppgiften. –> Ogillad, gruppen blir arg och beroende, produktiv när ledarn är där, oproduktiv annars.
- Democratic: Hör efter förslag, diskuterar med gruppen, gör ingen skillnad på sig och gruppen –> Gillad, glad grupp, stabil mellanhög produktivitet.
- Laissez faire: Låter gruppen göra och besluta allt, ingen auktoritet, minimal inblandning —-> Ogillad/orespekterad, gruppen leker, stabil låg produktivitet.
Glass-ceiling
The concept refers to women’s difficulty climbing the corporate ladder and landing leader positions due to their genders.
Glass-cliff
The concept refers to women only being appointed leaders as scapegoats when there are issues and the company is facing hardship.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and group behavior
Explains group behavior in terms of member’s wants, motivations, drives and feelings.
Lewin’s field theory
Gestalt psychological perspective on groups and their parts.
Assumes groups are often greater than the sum of their parts.
Theories based on behaviorism - social exchange theory
Asssumes individuals act to maximise their rewards and minimise their costs.
Systems theory approach
Assumes that groups are systems, an input process - output model I-P-O model of group performance exemplifies the systems approach.
Inputs are the resources, elements, or factors that are present at the outset of the group process. They set the stage for how the group operates and what it can achieve. Inputs can include:
Processes are the activities and interactions that occur within the group as it works towards its goals. This is where inputs are transformed.
Outputs are the results of the group’s activities and processes. They are the end products of the group’s work.
Cognitive theories and their relation to group processes
Information-processing
Self-reference effect
Group-reference effect
Assumes that many group processes are understandable only after considering the cognitive processes of individuals that allow them to collect information, making sense of it and then act on the results of their mental appraisals.
Self-reference effect improves recall of information related to the self-concept.
Group-reference effect does the same for info related to the group-concept.
Biological perspective - Blascovich’s threat/challenge model
Threat appraisal
Challenge appraisal
Study the relationships between physiological mechanisms and group behavior.
Focuses on the psychopsyiological and cognitive aspects of the stress response and how individuals interpret and cope with different stressors.
- Threat appraisail: Individuals perceive a situation as a potential threat.
This triggers a stress response characterised by increased psyiological arousal.
Cognitive responses to threat appraisals may include feelings of anxiety, fear and a sense of vulnerability.
Individuals tend to avoid or use defensive coping mechanism to situations they perceive as harmful or threatning. - Challenge appraisal
Perceive situation as challenging with potential growth and learning.
Also triggers stress response but characterised by a positive form of physiological arousal.
Cognitive responses may include feelings of excitement, motivation and a sense of control over the situation.
Individuals are more likely to approach and engage with the situation when they perceive it as a challenge. They may use problem-solving and active coping strategies to overcome obstacles and achieve their goals.
One can change one’s appraisal of a situation from a threat to a challenge which leads to more adaptive stress responses and a shift from suffering to growth.
Self-confidence, self-efficacy and perception of adequate resources affects whether we cognitively appraise a situation as threathening or challenging.
3 interrelated processes determine relationship between individuals and groups.
Inclusion-exclusion
Individualism-collectivism
Personal- & Social identity
A) Inclusion and exclusion
B) Individualism and collectivism
C) Personal identity and social identity.
Sociometrical theory of self-esteem
Our self-esteem is a measure of our degree of inclusion in a group.
When do individuals put the group’s needs before their own?
Individualism and collectivism
When they experience a sense of belonging, identification, and commitment to the group.
Four distinct differences between individualism and collectivism
- Social relations: Collectivism endorses communal relationships, whereas individualism supports exchange relationships and allocations based on the norm of reciprocity. Sharing with others is more likely in a collectivistic culture.
- Social obligations: Collectivistic group cultures stress loyalty, hierarchy and conformity more than individualistic groups.
- Social goals: When members gain rewards through cooperative goal-seeking, the allocation of those rewards can be based on the equality norm (collectivistic) or the equity norm (individualistic).
- Self-concepts: Personal identity focuses on attributes that separates one from others whilst social identity focuses on attributes that groups one together with others.
Optimal distinctiveness theory
Individuals strive to maintain an optimal balance between their personal/relational- and collective self.
Identification
Norms, values, behavior
Belonging and social identity
Common characteristics
Emotional/affective factors
Activation in presence of other group
Minority –> self-stereotyping
The process by which individuals associate themselves as members of particular social groups. This is when one sees the group as part of one’s identity.
Involves adopting the group’s norms, values and behaviors as part of one’s own identity. Can lead to a sense of belonging and social identity. Can be influenced by both cognitive factors such as recognising common characteristics but also by emotional/affective factors (e.g feeling positively about the group).
Activation of one’s sense of identification with a group is most pronounced when in the presence of another group.
We also tend to categorise ourselves faster if we’re in a minority group. Social identity is more salient in a minority, leading to activation of self-stereotyping.
Cutting of reflected failure - CORFing
Tendency to refuse affiliation with negative aspects of a group while claiming association with positive aspects.
Individual mobility
Resigning from a group, e.g because of poor performance because of collective failure. One deems personal failure to be more important than collective failure.
Different types of loneliness
Emotional loneliness: Lack of long-term meaningful, intimate relationship with another person. May be triggered by divorce, a breakup with a lover, or repeated romantic failures.
Social loneliness: Occurs when people feel cut off from their network of friends, acquaintances, and group members.
Temporal need-threat
The TNT model recognises that persuasive messages often contain info about a topic and info about consequences of adopting a particular attitude or behavior related to the issue (the “threat”).
Temporal threat-need model
Threat perception
Need recognition
Temporal aspect
Behavioral responses
Contextual factors
The Temporal Threat-Need Model is a conceptual framework used in psychology and related fields. It integrates two fundamental dimensions affecting human behavior and decision-making: the perception of threat and the recognition of need. These dimensions are considered over time, providing a dynamic view of how individuals and groups respond to different situations.
Threat Perception: This involves assessing potential dangers or risks in one’s environment. It’s not just about immediate physical dangers, but also includes social, emotional, or economic threats. This perception influences how individuals or groups decide to act, react, or plan for the future.
Need Recognition: This refers to the acknowledgment and understanding of various needs, which can be basic (like food and shelter) or more complex (like social belonging or self-actualization). Recognizing these needs is crucial for setting goals and driving motivation.
Temporal Aspect: Unique to this model, it focuses on how perceptions of threats and needs change over time. It acknowledges that these perceptions are not static and are influenced by past experiences, current conditions, and expectations for the future.
Behavioral Responses: This element of the model addresses how the combination of threat perception and need recognition, within a given time frame, leads to specific behaviors. For example, a high threat level combined with a critical need might lead to urgent action.
Contextual Factors: This component considers the influence of external factors such as cultural norms, environmental conditions, and situational variables on how threats and needs are perceived and acted on.
Herd instinct
The herd instinct, also known as herd behavior or herd mentality, refers to the tendency of individuals to follow the actions, beliefs, or behaviors of a larger group or society, often without critical thinking or independent decision-making. It can lead to conformity and can influence people to act in ways they might not otherwise if they were making individual choices.
Idiocentric
Individualistic
Allocentric
Collectivistic
Optimal distinctiveness theory
Argues that most people have at least 3 fundamental needs:
- The need to be assimilated by the group
- The need to be connected to friends and loved ones
- The need for autonomy and differentiation
Groups offer something both to the individualist and the collectivist, you are able to maximize a sense of uniqueness as well as a sense of belonging.
Collective self-esteem
How good we feel about the group we belong to.
Membership esteem
How good we feel about being in a group.
Private collective self-esteem
Our evaluation of our group and our membership in it.
Public collective self-esteem
How we think others perceive our group and how our subjective picture of other’s perspective affects how we feel about ourselves - how it affects our self-esteem.
Stereotype verification and stereotype threat
Stereotype verification refers to the extent that an individual conforms to expectations from their environment based on stereotypes regarding the group that the individual is part of.
Stereotype threat refers to the adverse performance effects that the awareness of a negative stereotype that one is subjected to, leads to. In short, one might suffer from anxiety or performance anxiety due to being aware that there is a stereotype that women are bad at math, before doing a math exam.
Who joins groups and who stays apart?
Personal qualities of person
Situational factors
Attraction factors
Motivations
Previous experiences
Expectations
Cost-benefit analysis
Need for affiliation
Need for intimacy
Social anxiety
Often based on personal qualities of the members, the nature of the situation and their liking for another.
People differ in personality, motivations, past experiences and expectations. These individual differences influence their degree of interest in joining groups.
Personal qualities that affect whether one will join a group
Big five:
Extraversion - sociable and happy
Opennes - influences which type of group one is eager to join
Social anxiety, shyness and social anxiety disorders as well as attachment styles negatively affect our will to join groups.
Social motives and their affect on our will to join groups
Need for affiliation, need for intimacy and need for power predict one’s group joining proclivities.
Need for affilation and rejection sensitivity are correlated.
Rejection sensitivity
Refers to an individual’s heghtened awareness of the risk of rejection. It involves a cognitive and emotional anticipation of rejection.
One is more prone to interpret ambigious social cues as signs of potential rejection, leading to anxiety, avoidance or defensive behaviors in social situations. Minor social slights are interpreted as personal rejection.
Correlation between need for affiliation and rejection sensitivity
Potential negative correlation, if you’re highly susceptible to feeling rejected you might not be as prone to seeking out social contexts and thus you might not be as likely to affiliate with others.
FIRO - Fundamental interpersonal relations orientation
Explains how people use groups to satisfy their need to receive and express inclusion, control and affection
Inclusion: People with high need for inclusion seek social interaction and want to be included in social activites - while those with a low need may prefer more solitude or independence
Control - The need for control relates to an individual desire to influence and direct the behavior of others or to be influenced and directed by others. Those with a high need for control prefer to take charge and make decisions.
Affection : This need involves the desire for emotional closeness, warmth and intimacy in relationships. People with a high need for affection seek emotional connections and express their feelings openly, while those with a low need may be more reserved in their emotional expressions and prefer more casual or distant interactions.
Relationality
How our relations look and how much we care about them - men and women
Women tend to be higher than men in this attribute. They seek membership in smaller, informal, intimate groups whereas men seek membership in larger, more formal, task-focused groups.
These differences are likely due, in part, to sex roles and sexism.
Positive and negative consequences of cohesion
Positive:
- Satisfied members
- Less turnover and stress
Negative:
- Emotional turmoil
- Old seargeant syndrome: seeing others suffer or pass away that you’re close to causes you a lot of suffering.
Cohesion and it’s effects on the group and performance
Intensifies group processes such as dependence, conformity, and acceptence of influence which may negatively decision making and lead to group think.
Cohesion increases success because cohesive groups perform well and good performance increases cohesion.
Initiation rituals and their effects
Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance suggests that initiation rites create cognitive dissonance that members try to get rid of by adjusting their behavior and increasing commitment to group to fit the behavior they are pressured to during the initiation.
Hazing and it’s adverse effects on group cohesion
Hazing leads to psychological, emotional and physical damage. Undermines trust and fosters fear and hostility as well as deters new members.
Obedience and it’s facets
Proximity to victim and leader
Legitimacy of leader
Sense of responsibility
Harm inflicted
Surveilance
Situational context - where is it
Obedience is common in hierarchically organised groups such as educational institutions, military and other organisational settings.
Depends on proximity to victim, legitimacy of leader, sense of responsibility, the harm, surveillance, research location and groups??
Status generalization
Refers to the tendency to attribute the same status to a whole group of people based on the status of one member of the group.
Status allocation is most unfair when the minority is underrepresented in the particular group, worst is when it is a solo status.
Law of oligarchy
Michel’s theory that even in initially egalitarian and democratic groups, status differences arise and power is allocated to a disproportionately small elitist group.
The interpersonal complementarity hypothesis
When encountering an assertive person, one tends to behave submissively and conversly one behaves dominantly when interacting with a submissive person.
Approach/inhibition theory in relation to power
Less inhibiton
Higher activity level
More authenticity
Less conformity
Goal striving
More positive emotions
Risky behavior
Negative impact on other’s emotional state
Loss of perspective
Misjudge others
Increased self-sastisfaction
Powerless:
Neg. affect and reduced motivation
Higher power leads to approach/response system activation, with less inhibition, higher activity level, more authenticity, less conformity, consistent goal-striving, more positive emotions,
Negative aspects include proclivity to riskier and inappropriate behavior with a negative impact on other people’s emotional states. Loss of perspective, the tendency to misjudge others and increased self-satisfaction.
Theory proposes that when powerless individuals are influenced they are likely to exhibit more negative affect and reduced motivation.
Metamorphic effects of power
People who have access to coercive power will use it and start to overestimate their control over other people as well as devaluing them.
Compliance-identification-internalization model
- Compliance: In this initial stage, individuals conform or comply with a persuasive message or request primarily due to external factors, such as social pressure, rewards, or punishment. They may not necessarily internalize the message but go along with it to gain approval or avoid negative consequences.
- Identification: In this stage, individuals identify with the group or source of the persuasive message. They accept the message because they want to be associated with the group or individual promoting it. Their attitude change is driven by a desire for belonging or affiliation.
- Internalization: In the final stage, individuals genuinely internalize the persuasive message and incorporate it into their belief system. They adopt the attitude or behavior because they have come to believe in its validity and align with their personal values and beliefs.
Leadership substitutes theory
In some instances formal leadership is not necessary, if for example a group is made up of highly motivated individuals with good communication skills.
There are substitutes, neutralizers and enhancers.
Substitutes: highly skilled and motivated team don’t need a leader.
Neutralisers: Nullify impact of leadership behaviors. For example when a group doesn’t respect a leader the behavior of said leader is meaningless.
Enhancers: when the team is already great at their work as is but need guidance to coordinate efforts to improve performance even further.
