Forsyth begrepp

Question 1

A priori group

Existing knowledge, theories, hypotheses

Answer 1

A group created based on certain criteria or characteristics with a specific intention or goal. For example in research, an a priori group will be formed based on existing knowledge, theoretical considerations or hypotheses. Then the data collection of the group will be based of the criterias.

Question 2

A posteriori groups

Answer 2

Formed after data collection, based on observed patterns or statistical analysis of the data such as cluster analysis och factor analysis to identify groups or categories based on observed similarities or differences.

Question 3

Adjourning

Tuckman’s stages of group development

Answer 3

Forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning

Adjourning refers to the dissolution of the group. It is a critical compontent if the group members want to feel that the experience was rewarding.

Question 4

Affiliation

Answer 4

Refers to the desire or tendency to form and maintain social connections or relationships with others. It encompasses the human needs of being accepted, belongingness and connection with others. Plays a crucial part in social interaction and behavior within groups

Question 5

Belongingness

Answer 5

Driving factor of affiliation, humans want to belong to a group where they feel secure, appreciated, valued and understood.

Question 6

Interpersonal attraction

Factor of affiliation

Similarity
Proximity
Warmth/Kindness

Answer 6

Affiliation is also influenced by the degree of interpersonal attraction. The attraction is influenced by factors such as similarity, proximity, warmth/kindness. If we are attracted to other people we are more likely to form bonds and eventually groups with them.

Question 7

Ingroup favoritism

Answer 7

Affiliation leads to ingroup favoritism. It refers to how people exhibit preferential treatment or bias towards members of the own group compared to outsiders or members of other groups. This tendency is driven by the desire to protect or promote the interests of one’s own group and maintain a sense of solidarity, cohesion and good social status.

Question 8

Social identity

Identity
Conflict
Prototypes & metacontrast principle

Answer 8

Refers to the part of an individual’s self-concept that is derived from the membership of a group. Being a part of a group inevitably leads to one’s perception of one-self being influenced by which groups one is part of. This influence affects one’s behavior, thoughts, emotions as well as attitudes and beliefs about one self.

Relevant for studies about intergroup conflict. Related concepts are in- and outgroup favoritism, group attribution error, stereotypes, social categorization etc.

Prototypes and stereotypes are generalized beliefs about the in- and outgroup members’ characteristics based on perceived common traits of group members.

Metacontrast principle is when we compare our group to others and notice the differences. The stronger the differences are and the more salient they are, the more we identify with our social group, leading to ingroup-favoritism, solidarity and strong identity. This is done by comparison, we boost our in-group and thus compare with outgroups that we consider to be worse in some aspects. We simplify the groups by categorization and stereotyping them.

In-group favoritism arises because perceived positive characteristics through self-enhancement and cohesion and also due to perceived variety of characteristics and uniqueness of each group member.

Out-group stereotyping arises as a result of perceived homogeneity, which oversimplifies outgroup members.

Social identity theory explains cohesion and group identity by self-enhancement by affiliation with the positive image of the ingroup.

Group cohesion increases. Stereotyping increases prejudice and leads to intergroup conflicts.

Social influence: Leaders emphasise the differences between groups and point to what makes them better and more unique to boost cohesion and positive self-image but can lead to intergroup conflict.

Question 9

Attachment style

Behavioral, cognitive, emotional orientation

Answer 9

The behavioral, cognitive and emotional orientation when in relationships with others. Affects how people form relationships within groups and is based on critical early experiences with caregivers and subsequent experiences of interacting with others, based on the foundation of attachment derived from infancy.

Question 10

Attraction relations

Answer 10

Refers to the likes and dislikes among the members of a group, which paves the way for forming friendships or enemies. It gives an entry point to explore how and why individuals are drawn to certain group members and how the relationships form and evolve within a group and how this affects group cohesion, dynamics and effectiveness.

Question 11

Leadership and influence

Emergence - qualities
Social influence and group norm shaping

Answer 11

Group members who are deemed influential or liked by others may gain social status and a more dominant position in relation to others which contributes to the shaping of group norms and influencing others through social influence. Leaders are often respected and valued and thus gain a higher degree of social status.

Question 12

Babble effect

Answer 12

The tendency for group members who talk at a high rate in the group to emerge as leaders even if the information they share is of low quality.

Question 13

Implicit leadership theories

Cognitive schemas & structures
Implicit beliefs
Prototypical leaders
Contextual factors
Dynamic nature
Impact on behavior and decision-making

Answer 13

Group members’ underlying taken-for-granted assumptions about the traits, characteristics and qualities that distinguish a leader from their followers, this is also known as leadership prototypes.

In essence the are the implicit underlying cognitive structures or frameworks against which we compare a person to determine whether or not they are suitable leaders. These theories represent assumptions and beliefs about what an effective leader is and who is perceived as an effective leader in various contexts.

Contextual factors such as organizational structure, task complexity and type, team dynamics and follower characteristics all affect which leadership attributes that are demed relevant.

Implicit leadership theories are dynamic and can change over time. Personal experiences, exposure to different social environments and situations and new information may all affect one’s implicit beliefs.

Our implicit beliefs affect of we act in relation to formal leaders or aspiring ones. The theoriesa ffect how individuals react to leaders, how they select leaders for positions of authority and how one evalutes their performance. The theories are also relevant for the emergence of leaders as they might try to emulate the charactheristics, attitudes and behaviors related to their implicit beliefs.

Question 14

Bales equilibrium model

Task and socio-emotional dimensions and roles
Role differentiation
Equilibrium and group effectiveness
Group development
Leadership and facilitation

Answer 14

A conceptual analysis of group development that proposes that the focus of the group shifts back and forth between effectivity and strengthening interpersonal relations among group members.

There are task and socio-emotional dimensions to a group and subsequent roles. Therefore task as well as socio-emotionally oriented behavior will be exhibited by members and different members will vary in their degree of each dimension. Task-oriented behavior refers to decision-making, planning and execution of plan to reach the group¨s goals. Socio-emotionally oriented behavior has the scope of strenghtening interpersonal relations to increase cohesiveness which makes group members feel safe, secure and valued. This cohesiveness also contributes to group effectiveness. Socio-emotional behavior refers to social support, expressing feelings and building lasting rapport.

Equilibrium and effectiveness:
If there is an inbalance between the two dimensions, the group will suffer. If the group is too preoccupied with tasks, interpersonal relations will be neglected, thus leading to membership dissatisfaction, and potentially leading to group members leaving. Conversely, if a group focuses too much on the socio-emotional aspect, the group may struggle with reaching it’s goals. A dynamic shifting leads to equilibrium where both cohesiveness and productivity is cultivated.

Group dynamics change as the group transitions through different stages according to the stage model. When the group is in the storming stage, more focus will be directed towards the socio-emotional dimension, to cultivate cohesiveness and consolidation of roles. When the group is in the norming and performing stage, more focus may be directed towards tasks.

It is important for the leader to facilitate equilibrium. Good leadership that guides the group through different stages as well as encouraging dynamic shifts to the two dimensions will ease the process of equilibrium. Skilled leadership fosters open communications, helps navigate conflicts and promotes collaboration towards common goals, all whilst the group members feel satisfied and perceive the group as positive and cohesive.

Question 15

Basking in reflected glory BIRG

Affiliating to boost self-esteem
More likely if the glorious person is part of own group or category
Might want to join groups that have glory

Answer 15

Seeking direct or indirect association with prestigious or successful groups or individuals, to boost personal social status and self-esteem. This is especially common when the successful individuals are perceived as belonging to the same group or being in the same or similar category of one self. If one feels similar to another group that is successful, one is more likely to associate themselves with that group and try to enter it. BIRG fosters self-esteem, enhancing social identity as one feels more inclined to associate with a group and maintaining positive group affiliations.

Question 16

Cutting off reflected failure CORF

Answer 16

Tendency to associate less with individuals that are unsuccessful, especially when these individuals are perceived as part of the same social group. This is to downplay their relation to the failure and to protect their self-esteem and social status, using terms as “they” instead of “us”. It helps in avoiding stigma or shame, and the consequential loss of social status.

Question 17

Bona-fide groups

Answer 17

Naturally formed groups such as audiences, teams, friendship groups, clubs. In contrast to ad hoc groups created for research purposes.

Question 18

Brainstorming

Expressive
Postpone evaluation
Quantity
Piggyback ideas

Answer 18

Identifying solutions to a problem through a technique where you’re expressive, with no filter, letting any idea out.

Postpone evaluation: not evaluating during the brainstorming process. All ideas are deemed equally valuable.

Quantity, get as many ideas flowing as possible.

Piggyback ideas: All ideas belong to the group, therefore members should try to modify or extend, build on each other’s ideas.

Question 19

Nominal groups

Minimum requirement - name, nom in french

Individual work
Pooling together
loafing and interdependence

Answer 19

Group created by having individuals work alone and then pooling their ideas.
minimizes loafing and interdependence of idea generation

Question 21

Coercive power

Answer 21

Power that comes from one’s capacity to dispense punishments, both personal and impersonal ones.

Question 22

Cohesion

support, emotional connection, solidarity

Answer 22

The degree to which a collection of people identify as a cohesive, unified group. High cohesion brings with it emotional connection, solidarity and support.

Question 23

Cohesion to performance and vice versa

communication, coordination, motivation, emotional support
performance increases and vice versa
task interdepence and effect on cohesion

Answer 23

Intertwined and mutually reinforcing each other. Cohesive groups often experience higher levels of performance due to improved communication, coordination and motivation as well as practical and emotional support.

Good performance may lead to increased cohesion as well. If the group performs well the group members might feel pride, satisfaction and strenghtens the social identity as well as boosting the group morale and the individuals self-esteem.

A factor that affects the degree to which cohesion affects performance is task interdependence. If the tasks can be performed individually without dependence on other group members, cohesion tends to be less of an important factor.

Question 24

Collaborative circle

meeting for support and idea sharing
artists, poets, philosophers and thinkers, litterature, science
protects against status quo by positive influence

Answer 24

Peers who share similar occupational goals and who through longer periods of time have a dialoge and collaborate, negotiating a common vision that guides their work.

Question 25

Collectives

Protests or demonstrations

Answer 25

Relatively large group of people who share similarities in actions and outlook. The group consists of individuals who are joined by some common interest or activity.

Question 26

Group mind/ Collective consciousness

**Collective mind that comes together when individual minds are fused together, own personality and decision-making, different from the sum of the individual minds. Different minds align. Behaviors that individuals wouldnt exhibit. **

Deindividuation, loss of self-awareness, diffusion of responsibilty

Shared identity
Norms and values
Social integration - cohesion and solidarity
Social control - conformity to norms
Cultural reproduction
Symbolic representations

Answer 26

Group mind is when individual minds come together and fuse and align to the extent that a group mind is formed, that has it’s own characteristics, personality, decision-making, belief, values and moral. It becomes a unified entity. Behavior that leads to behavior that would not be exhibited by individuals on their own. Crowds in riots or protests will act in a way that they wouldnt on their own, because they feel anonymous and unaccountable, they are a part of a bigger entity. Collective identity and action.

Interactions between the group members’ personality lead to new properties, these are influenced by group dynamics and emergent social norms, that affect how individuals in a group act. Being part of a bigger group leads to deindividuation, leading to recklessness in many cases ,because one loses self-awareness and has a mind connected to the group, feels less accountable.

Shared beliefs, values, norms, attitudes and knowledge that characterize a particular society or social group. Represents the collective understanding and awareness that individuals of a group have in common, shaping perceptions, behaviors and interactions.

May lead to integration by promoting solidarity and cooperation amoung group members. May however also be used as a means of control, the rising norms are to be conformed to and deviating from these will result in sanctions or ostracism.

Question 27

Collective efficacy

Majority
organizing, planning, executing
goals

Answer 27

Belief that is shared by the majority of the group members that the group is capable of organizing and executing the plans necessary to reach the group’s goals. The efficacy means that the group members believe that they all collectively can make an effort to perform the tasks needed to reach the group’s goals.

Question 28

Collective effort model

Social loafing explanation model

Goals value
Attainment expectancy

Decrease social loafing: identifiability, accountability, involvement, increase social identity

Answer 28

Two factor explaination for why social loafing occurs. Based on expectancy of goal attainment and value of goals, if they are dimminished they are therefore going to lead to social loafing.

If one feels that the group’s goals are not important or that they are not attainable they will not exert themselves.

Question 29

Commons dilemma / Social trap

Common resources
Overuse, shortage, individual benefit leads to damage to group. Short term personal or long term group.

Answer 29

The dilemma that arises when people seek to maximize their outcoume by pursuing personal goals rather than colective ones, may lead to substantial issues if too many people act like this, resulting in long-term collective loss.

Question 30

Comparison level

previous experiences set standard
high cl - good previous
low cl - bad previous

Answer 30

The standard against which people compare and evaluate the quality of their social relationships. People with experience of low cost and high reward will expect more, therefore having a higher CL, whilst the reverse is true for those with experiences with high cost and low rewards.

Question 31

Contact hypothesis

Answer 31

The idea that contact between groups will lead to decreased intergroup conflict.

Question 32

Extended contact hypothesis

contact with person other group - like group
ingroup member with outgroup, conflict will dimminish

Answer 32

Prediction that cross-group friendships not only strenghten the individual’s tolerance and acceptance of the other group but also lead to the group members of each group to be more positive to the outgroup as a result of the extended contact.

Question 33

Fiedler’s contingency model of leadership when it comes to control

Leader-member relations
Task structure
Leader’s position of power

Answer 33

Refers to the fit of leadership style and situational factors such as leader-member relations, task structure and positional power (allocating resources, grant rewards or punish)

If a leader has good relations, task is structured and the leader has a good position of power then they will operate in a favorable situation where they can control the group well, task-oriented is favored.

If the group has poor LMR, unstructured tasks with a leader lacking in authority then they should should also be task-oriented.

Best to use relationship-oriented when the situational variables are are moderately favorable.

Spend less time on relations when the situation is favorable, just work effectively. Spend less time when it is unfavorable, you cant repair relations anyhow.

As soon as these conditions change to the worse, the leader’s control grows weaker.

Favorable relations exist when there is trust, respect and cooperation between leader and member. If the relationship is of high quality, members are more likely to follow directives and feel motivated to work hard to reach the group’s objectives.

Task structure: Specificity, complexity and clarity of a task.
Highly structured task
Unstructured task: Ambiguos, unclear and complex task: need to be more relationship-oriented and consultative.

Leader’s position of power:
Strong position of power with formal power:
Weak position of number: Less formal authorative power

Interplay and dynamics between these situational factors influence which leadership style is most effective.

Question 34

Dark triad

Narcissism - inflated ego, exploit to inflate ego and admiration
Machiavellianism - exploit to reach personal goals
Psychopathy - don’t care about people and lack social regulatory capacity, impulsive

Answer 34

Narcissism: Grandiosity, unstable self-esteem, manipulative and controlling. Self-centered and egotistical as well as entitled. Lack of empathy and regard for others.

Machiavellianism: Manipulative, deceitfulness and exploitative to reach their personal goals and aspirations with no regard for other’s needs or feelings. Strategic, cunning and effective at maximizing their benefits at the expense of others.

Psychopathy: Calloussness, impulsivity and lack of empathy or remorse. Individuals high in psychopathy exhibit shallow emotions, a lack of guilt and shame and may exhibit aggressive, antisocial behavior. Deceitful, irresponsibe and aggressive behavior. May also show superficial emotions such as charm and charisma to get what they want.

Question 35

Elaboration principle / Percolation

Answer 35

As non group members affiliate with group members, they eventually get linked to the group and become a part of it. This leads to increased group size and complexity as well as dynamic shifts. Systems theory calls it elaboration or percolation. Basic dynamic is the creation of new elements and ties that make the individuals tied together to become a functional unit, a group.

Question 36

Embarrassed misery avoids company

Answer 36

Feeling embarrased can lead to isolation and social inhibition to avoid perceived negative judgement from others.

Question 37

Entitativity

Answer 37

The degree to which a group is perceived to be a single, unified entity - a real group.

Question 38

Equality norm

Answer 38

Social standard that encourages the equal distribution of resources to all members.

Question 39

Equity norm

Answer 39

Resources are to be allocated proportionate to each member’s input.

Question 40

Ethnocentricism

Answer 40

Seeing one’s own ethnicity as the most central and important entity, thus judging other cultures and social groups based on standards and values of the own group. Leads to insensitivity, bias, miscommunication, conflict etc. It implies a type of superiority because of one’s ethnicity.

Like ingroup-favoritism but on a tribal, ethnic or nationa level.

Question 41

Evaluation apprehension theory

Answer 41

Suggests that the mechanism behind social faciliation effects is the evaluation apprehension experienced when we are in social contexts, where we feel we might be evaluated and judged based on our performance. This leads to an increase in performance on simple and rehearsed tasks, whilst lowering performance on complex or unfamiliar tasks. This in contrast to the arousal/drive theory of social facilitation.

Question 42

Evolution theory on leadership

Answer 42

Theory that suggests that certain leadership traits are universal and developed through evolution as these traits favored adaptation and survival of the group. Intelligence, decisivness, fairness and good communication skills were all favored by evolution.

Question 43

Experience sampling

Answer 43

Research method that prompts participants in real time to record thoughts, emotions and behaviors in relation to different events and different times each day, often multiple times. Questionaires and mobile applications are usually used.

Question 44

Face culture

Humility, empathy, hierarchy, harmny, humility
Mutually benefitial cooperation, respect
Group takes care of offenders

Answer 44

Societies that emphasize hierarchy, humility and empathy. Encourages cooperation that maintains both parties’ respectability. If someone is insulted, they need not take matter into their own hands and retaliate, the rest of the group will simply deal with the offender.

One acts in accordance with harmony, humility and respect.

Question 45

Herd instinct

Modern example: consumer trends, stock market shifts, social fads, clothes trends

Answer 45

We are instinctally drawn to other humans, flocking to the herd. This is an evolutionary product and leads to us conforming to social norms to maintain cohesion, membership of the group, thus ensuring our survival.

Modern examples are trend in consumer behavior, stock market movements and social fads. We follow the herd, as to not stick out too much and risk exclusion or bad judgement.

Question 46

Followership types

Conformist - interdependent, not innovative, leader devotion
Passive - SHEEP, interdepender, has to be monitored, prone to loafing if not encouraged or monitored, complete tasks if handled correctly
Pragmatic - basic essential work force, mellanmjölk, do what they should
Alienated
Exemplary - not interdependent, innovative, active, engaged, believe in goals, follow leader but can be dissenting in constructive manner, need not be monitored, can take responsibility and delegation

Answer 46

Conformist: Yes person. Active and energized, although not all that independent and does not think for themselves that much. Devoted to leader, follow them and defends them when slandered.

Passive: By definition they are passive. SHEEP. They follow the lead of others, without great enthusiasm or passion. They do not think for themselves. They need to be constantly monitored and encouraged, but they eventually finish their tasks. If not monitored they will loaf.
Alienated: Not commited to group or cause, feel they have been unfairly treated, or because they maintain their independence of influence from others. Silent, speak when critical of fellow members for staying true to the group, question leader and think they should lead instead. They will not contribute until fairness instills itself.
Pragmatic followers: Neither active or passive, don’t rely all too much on others, do what they should and are basic and essential part of the group, don’t confrom all that much.
Exemplary followers: Active, do everything with enthusiasm, believe in the goals and their leaders. Work well with others and follow lead, but can think independently and need not be monitored. If they do not agree with the leader, they will dissent in a constructive manner. They are able to be delegated.

Question 47

Foot-in-the-door

Compliance

Answer 47

Influencing a person by asking for a small request, getting compliance and then asking for a substantial request after compliance has already set in.

Question 48

Free riding

Answer 48

Contributing less to a collective task when one feels that the rest of the group will compensate for the lack of effort. Also happens to avoid being a “sucker”, who works too hard.

Question 49

Fundamental attribution error FAE

Answer 49

Tendency to overestimate causal influence of dispositional factors on behaviors, while underestimating causal influence of situational factors. E.g: underestimating group’s influence on individual behavior.

E.g: Blaming individuals and their personal disposition for obeying orders that cause harm, underestimating power of group-level processes.

Question 50

Genetic basis of conflict

Answer 50

Evolutionary result of how people lived back in the days. When humans became socialized animals, we started to live in bands of people, or simply, tribes. These tribes offered safety and increased probability of survival. These tribes used to compete with other rival tribes for resources and land. This lead to the development of the human capacity to determine each person’s tribal allegiance.

Question 51

Great leader theory - Great man theory

Inherent characteristics
Shape history

Answer 51

Theory by Carlyle that says that successful leaders possess certain characteristics that mark them for greatness and that these great leader shape the course of history.

Question 52

Five stages of development

Orientation - Forming
Roles, leader acceptance, dependency, group consensus

Answer 52

Members familiarize themselves with each other and the group, dependency and inclusion issues, acceptance of leader and group consensus grows.

People are polite, tentative, concerned of ambiguity, goals start to form, followers head to active leaders.

Question 53

Five stages of development

Conflict - storming
Defiance of leader
Tension between members and leader-member rleationships.

Hostility
Absence
Criticism of ideas and goals
Polarisation & coalitions

Answer 53

Disagreement over procedures, discontentment expressed, tension between leaders, antagonizing leader and questioning him/her.

Criticism of ideas, hostility, absence, polarisation and coalition forming.

Question 54

Five stages of development

Norming
Role formation
Settlement
Group consensus - procedures
Cohesion, unity
Amicable relations
Group standards
Constructive communication

Answer 54

Roles start to settle, cohesiveness and unity forms, standards develop, relationships consolidate, trust and communication arises.

People agree on procedures, less role ambiguity, more of a sense of cohesion and unity.

Question 55

Five stages of development

Performing
Task related talk - focus on goals
Might not reach due to conflict or poor leadership
Decision-making
Hierarchy solidified
Coordinated

Answer 55

Competence is rightfully allocated, effective work, achieving goals, high task orientation, supportive culture drives performance.

Decision making, problem solving, mutual cooperation.

Question 56

Five stages of development

Adjourning
Planned or spontaneous
Planned: goal achieved, not sufficeint progress, waste of resource
Spontaneous: Problem arises, disbandment due to dissatisfaction, alternative groups more preferable due to social exchange theory: costs too high to outweigh benefits

How does adjourning feel? Sad for dissolution and lack of personal support, mourn for the group. But also feeling of achievement and closure
Blame each other for errors - to deal with the demise

Answer 56

Group dissolves. Tasks are finalized. Decreased dependency.

Disintegration, withdrawal. Independence, emotionality, regret, appreciation.

Question 58

Group fallacy

Answer 58

My take of Forsyth’s explanation: When we ascribe the qualities, behaviors and beliefs of individiduals to the group instead of individual-level processes, behaviors and interactions. Instead of focusing on individuals who make up the group and their processes, we look at the group as a whole and study the “group’s behavior”. Misattribution of qualities: it’s the interaction between members and their individual qualities that make up the group. The group has no mind, intentionality or will.
Allport meant that groups are not real entities, rather, the actions of all is nothing more than the sum of actions taking separately.
Study individuals in group rather than the group.

Forsyth: Explaining social phenomena in terms of group as a whole rather than basing the explanation individual-level processes within the group. Leads to ascription of psychological qualities such as will, intentionality and mind to the whole group rather to the individuals within the group.

Question 59

Group initiation

Answer 59

The more severe initiation rites such as hazing lead to discomfort due to cognitive dissonance, and to reduce this discomfort we invest ourselves more to the group to balance out the imbalance between cost of membership and rewards of it. We want to feel that we get a lot out of a group if we put in a lot of time. SImply put: if we invest a lot we want to feel like it was worth it, therefore the dissonance leads to a change in attitude towards the group, in a positive direction, to match effort and reward.

Question 60

Group potency

Expectations to suceed
Higher positive expectation, harder goals
High potency correlate postivively to performance

Answer 60

Generalized positive expectation for the groups chances to reach success. Groups with high group potency generally set more difficult goals and they tend to outperform their less potent counterparts.

Question 61

Group reference effect

Answer 61

A group member’s memory of information is enhanced when the information is relevant to or related to the group they are a member of, in comparison to information that doesn’t concern the group.

Question 62

Groupthink

Answer 62

Polarisation pushes the initial average opinion towards it’s extreme. Group decision will be more extreme than the average of each of the members’ opinions. Due to diffusion of responsibility and overinfluence of risk-prone leaders.

Social comparison: If we see others expressing one opinion, we conform because of comparing us to them.

Persuasion: Others persuade us to think like them.

Social identity: If we identify strongly with a group we will adjust our opinion to our subjective perception of prototypical group member. If they are extreme, we will think extremely as well. Differentiating our group from others will lead to polarisation of our opinion.

When a group is so cohesive and unified that there are no dissenters, the quality of decision-making suffers as everyone is simply reinforcing the leader’s ideas and maintaining status quo. Basically the group members strive for unanimity at the cost of realistic and critical thinking and appraisal of alternative courses of actions, in order to find the best course of action.

Question 63

Group roles (types)

Neglected
Rejected
Popular
Controversial
Sociable
Unsociable
Cliques
Couples
Gatekeeper

Answer 63

1. Infrequently chosen by any members.
2. Disliked by many members.
3. Liked and chosen by many
4. Liked by some, unliked by others.
5. Friendly, choosing many as friends.
6. Choosing select few as friends.
7. Small groups within the group.
8. A pair that sticks together.
9. Gatekeeps info, sat at the head or subhub of the group’s social network.

Question 64

Hawthorne effect

Answer 64

Behaving differently when you feel that you are being observed. Typically positive but in essence it is the alteration of behavior when perceiving oneself to be observed or receiving attention.

Question 65

Hazing

Answer 65

Exposing new members to potential psychological and physical harm in order to influence them to devoting themselves to the group and it’s cause by performing actions that are irrelevant to the group’s goals or purpose.

Question 66

Hierarchy of needs (in groups)

Answer 66

An ordering of needs from the most basic and biological ones such as sleep and food to the most self-actualizing or aesthetic ones such as expression of art, developed by Abraham Maslow.

(Applied to groups, one can see that groups are the clear and most popular choice for individuals as they offer them all these needs to be met. Shelter, food, safety all lead to increased chances of survival.)

Question 67

Individualism

Independence
Freedom
Individual right
Self-promotion and self-actualization
Working alone and being alone
Confrontational, conflicts lead to competitive behavior

Answer 67

A social or cultural tradition, ideology or personal outlook that emphasises and prioritises the individual and their rights, independence and relationships with other individuals.

Self-promotion
Personal gains > group gains
Confrontational and competitive in conflicts

Question 68

Influence tactics (Soft and hard)

Compliance

Soft: relationship-based influence
Ingratiation
Collaboration
Friendships
Socialization

Hard: Use of threats and coercive power
Limiting freedom in choosing to comply
Use of rewards and punishments
Bullying

Answer 68

Influencing people to do what you want them to do.

Soft ones exploit the relation between influencer and target to extract compliance. Can be through collaboration, socializing, friendships, personal rewards and ingratiation (trying to get the target to like you).

Hard tactics are more coercive, limiting the freedom a target has in choosing whether or not to comply with the request or demand. Bullying, punishing, enforcing or invoking standards, threatning and delivering contingency-based rewards.

Question 69

Reward power

Personal: Relationship-based rewards - favors or praise or gifts that are personal
Impersonal: Standardized

Answer 69

Power based on control over distribution of rewards (both personal and impersonal) given or offered to group members.

Personal ones are relationship-oriented. Impersonal are standardized.

Question 70

Coercive power

Punishment and threat

Answer 70

Power based on the ability to punish or threaten others who do now comply with requests or demands.

Question 71

Agentic state

Psychological state
Reduction of autonomy, social hierarchy
Unable to resist compliance with authority

Answer 71

Psychological state that occurs when subordinates in an organized status hierarchy experience such a marked reduction in autonomy that they are unable to resist authorities’ orders.

Question 72

Legitimate power

Authority, formal leadership
Socially sanctioned claim to position
Right to require and demand compliance

Answer 72

Power derived from an individual’s socially sanctioned claim to a position or role that includes the right to require and demand compliance with his or her directives. Authoritative power, being a boss, formal leader.

Question 73

Referent power

Social relationships
Admiration, respect, attraction or identification

Answer 73

Power derived from social relationships between individuals, including identification with, attraction to or respect for another person or group. Simply put, liking someone makes it easier to follow their directives.

Question 74

Expert power

Answer 74

Power derived from expertise, superior knowledge, abilities or skills.

Question 75

Informational power

Answer 75

Power derived from the potential use of information, including rational argument, persuasion or explanation. Need only be perceived to be expert to get power.

Question 76

Ingroup-outgroup bias

Answer 76

The tendency to view the ingroup it’s members and the productivity of the group in a more positive light compared to outgroups. Ingroups are more commonly favoritized than outgroups are rejected.

Question 77

Interaction process analysis

Coding to 12 categories
e.g : shows solidarity, asks for orientation

Behavior and interpersonal group dynamics give info to performance

Answer 77

Analysing interactions between group members and categorizing behavior to one of twelve categories. 6 of the categories regard the socioemotional, relationship interaction. The other six are task-oriented behavior. This way one can learn how behavior affects group performance and productivity as well as interpersonal relationships and dynamics.

Question 78

Interpersonal complementarity

Answer 78

Group members’ actions tend to evoke a certain set of predictable actions that complement the initial action. Kindness is met with reciprocal kindness. Dominant behavior is met with submission.

Positive leads to positive.
Negative to negative.
Dominant to submissive.

Question 79

Collective self-esteem

Membership esteem
Private collective
Public collective
Importance to identity

Answer 79

The part of one’s identity and self-worth that comes from membership in a group.

Membership esteem: How good or worthy of a member one perceives themself to be.

Private collective self-esteem: One’s personal judgement about the value and worth of the group.

Public collective self-esteem: How one thinks the group is perceived by others.

Importance to identity: How significant and central the group membership is to a person’s overall self-concept.
Is group membership important for my identity, self-image is derived from social identity.

Question 80

Law of small numbers

Generalizing small amount of members to group
Prejudice and stereotyping

Answer 80

Generalising observations of a small group of members to the bigger outgroup. Leads to prejudice and stereotypes.

Question 81

Leader-member-exchange theory

Individual relationship between member and leader, leads to individual leadership styles.
Work well with some members, close members
Others don’t respond positively to leader, responsibility is decided by formal role

Ingroup: close subgroup of the leader
Appreciate
Reward
Allocate resources
Interact positively
Ingroup hard work, loyalty and pride
Relation to leader is vertical dyad, partnership

Outgroup: other less close members
Cold, formal contact
Less satisfying relation, do their work but only that
More likely to leave, less loyalty
Perform less

Leads to conflict bcs of dissatisfaction and perception of unfairness.

Minimize number of outgroup members.

Answer 81

The quality of the one-to-one relationship between a leader and subordinate affects the choice of effective leadership style. The leader has unique dyadic relations to all group members.

Ingroup members: Close subordinates that the leader is more likely to offer resources, bigger responsibilities, feedback and recognition.

Outgroup members: distant subordinates that the leader interacts with in a formal manner, less resources are offered, not as much support, less recognition and not as much responsibility.

Question 82

Transactional leadership

Rewars and punishment in response to performance
Structured, responsibility, monitoring
Intervening when there is deviance
Contingent rewards
Clear goals and expectations, rewards, bonuses, promotion praise for achieving goals or exceeding goals.
Proactively monitoring and intervening in deviance from plan. Active only when intervening, otherwise passive.

Answer 82

Focuses on exchange of rewards and punishments for performance. Emphasises clear structures, roles, tasks, responsibility with clear directives that are followed with the possibility of earning a reward or punishment.

Key characteristics:
- Contingent rewards: Performance determines the outcome. Transactional leaders set clear expectations and offer rewards such as promotions, bonuses or praise for meeting or exceeding performance standards.
- Management by exception: Active and passive. Proactively monitoring performance and correcting when subordinates deviate from them.

Question 83

Transformational leadership

Inspiring, motivating encouraging
Fosters creativity, innovation
More responsibility and autonomy
More relationship-oriented.
Active and engaged.
Charismatic, empathetic, individualized relations with group members.

Answer 83

Leaders that focus on inspiring and motivating followers to reach a higher level of performance, beyond expectation. Motivating, creating an environment that fosters development and encouraging them in tough times.

They are visionary with individualized considerations that cater to the unique subordinates, they intellectually stimulate their followers and they are charismatic and empathetic.

Increase confidence and aspiration and motivation as well as satisfaction. Uniting group by pursuing shared, challenging goals and offering support in hardship. Try to influence beliefs, attitudes and values as well as needs.

Question 84

Comparison transactional vs transformational leadership

Focus
Motivation
Application of each

Answer 84

Focus:
- Transactional: objectives and reaching goals.
- Transformational: Inspiring and empowering to achieve collective goals and drive change.

Motivation:
- Transactional: Rewards/Punishments
- Transformative: Leading with an example, motivating through vision and encouraging personal development.

Application of each leadership style:
- Transactional: Simple, structured, routine tasks in stable environments.
- Transformation, Complex, ambiguous dynamic tasks in uncertain environments with a need for change or innovation.

Question 85

Leadership emergence and it’s associated characteristics

Answer 85

Authenticity
Assertiveness
Decisiveness
Dominance
Five factors of personality: Openness, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, Emotionally stable

Question 86

Least preferred coworker scale LPC scale

Measurement of leadership style

Answer 86

Measure of the the type of leadership style that a leader uses to motivate their subordinates.

It is carried out by thinking of their least preferred coworker, the one with whom they’ve had most difficulty and then they rate them on a bipolar scale on traits such as pleasantness, tense/relaxed, friendly/unfriendly.

People with high score on the LPC scale, are dubbed relationship-oriented. The ones with low LPC score are deemed task-oriented.

Question 87

Lewin’s field theory and B function

Gestalt dictum - whole is greater than sum of parts

Answer 87

According to Lewin, behavior is a function of the person and the environment. Internal and external forces that affect the individual’s behavior.

Behavior and member reactions are a functional interaction between the internal personal characteristics and the situational factors that make up the environment.

Life space: Represents the psychological field that influences an individual and their behavior at any given time. Includes past experiences, future goals and current circumstances.

Force field analysis: Identify and analyze forces that drive or restrain change in a given situation. Allows one to manage change better.

Question 88

Lucifer effect

Benign into morally corrupt.
Powerful malevolent social situations.
External factors > personal characteristics.

Deindividuation and anonymity as well as diffusion of responsibility - more prone to do damange.

Structure and institutional policies as well as coercive methods and obedience demands can lead to nice people doing horrible things. Miller’s obedience experiment or Stanford Prison experiment.

Answer 88

The transformation of a benign person into a morally corrupt person due to powerful malevolent social situations.

Negative group situations lead to morally corrupt actions. If one gets power and is told to use it for bad intentions, they will conform and obey.

If a person is aware of power difference where they are inferior, they will comply and obey.

External situational factors are more responsible for the change than internal personal factors.

Deindividuation and anonymity leads to a loss of inhibition.

Systemic and structural influences can set the stage for “evil” behavior. Institutional policies and laws and rules as well as superimposed norms and authoritity dynamics can facilitate evil actions.

Question 89

Mimicry

Answer 89

Unconscious copying of behavior, such as crossing one’s arms as someone else does it. It is a very common group phenomena where laughter, yawning and frowning are collectively exhibited.

Question 90

Minimal intergroup situation / Minimal group paradigm

Answer 90

When two groups of people based on irrelevant criteria is formed, where members of t he groups share no past or future and are anonymous, they still favor their ingroup as opposed to the outgroup.

Question 91

Minimax principle

Answer 91

People will join groups and remain in groups that offer the maximum amount of rewards with the least amount of possible costs.

Rewards: Meeting people, social status, privileges, learning new skills, socially networking, boosting self-esteem.

Losses: Money and time as well as social pressure, possible injury or illness and excessive demands for time that they have to put in.

Question 92

Social exchange theory

Forming relations and joining groups to get benefits.

Cost-benefit analysis
Comparison level: CL
Comparison level for alternatives CLalt
Reciprocity and equity
Dependence and power analysis
Minimax principle

Answer 92

Theory that explains how relationships are initiated, maintained and dissolved by examining rewards and costs and their effects on membership satisfaction. Based on reciprocity and equity as well as cost-benefit analysis.

Comparison level: Refers to the expectations on quality of relationship and on the benefits they will and should get as well as the costs they expect. Based on previous experiences, norms and cultural expectations. If the expectations are met or exceeded, they are satisfied.

Comparison level for alternatives: The assessment or perception of the potential benefits of leaving the group and joining another. If the expectation is that one will gain more from joining another group, they might just do it.

Equity: Perceived fairness or balance of exchange of resources and benefits in a group. If imbalance is perceived, they might adjust their contributions or seek change in the relationship, or maybe leave it.

Trust: Belief that the other person in the relationship will act according to their word as well as mutual agreements.

Power: Ability to influence or control behavior or decisions. If there is a power imbalance, social dynamics and interactions can arise, influencing the distribution or rewards and costs.

Norm of reciprocity - fairness is when one feels that they get what they give and that rewards and resources are allocated fairly.

Commitment: Affective attachment, concern for others and sense of loyalty.

If they feel groups place too many demands and offer low costs then members might disband.

Question 93

Misery loves company

Answer 93

We feel supported and calmer when we suffer in company with others. Seeking validation, empathy and support from those in similar situations.

Question 94

Misery loves miserable company

Answer 94

Seeking out others who are miserable as well for similar reasons to reinforce their negative outlooks and to complain in company.

Question 95

Mixed-motive situation

Prison dilemma game

Answer 95

A situation in which people might want and need to cooperate with competitiors.

Prison dilemma game: You and your friend are arrested. If both are silent you are let go. If you both rat each other out you get 2 years. If only one rats the other out, the rat gets mild sentence and the other gets years.

Silent: Free
Both confess : Moderate sentence
1 confesses: Rat gets mild, ratted gets long sentence.

Question 96

Need for affiliation

Answer 96

Express a strong desire to affiliate, be with people, they are happier in the company of others and are more disturbed by negative interactions with others.

Question 97

Need for intimacy

Answer 97

Desire to be near others and to establish warm and deep, close relationships and are more likely to express caring emotions and expressions as well as demonstrating more concern for others.

Question 98

Need for power

Answer 98

Elevated desire to control and influence others, as well as leading and having power. They lead not because they want to bond, rather have a position of authority and influence.

Question 99

The need to belong

Answer 99

Generalized desire to seek out and join with others to feel understood, valued and safe. When unsatisfied, a tension and want arises.

Question 100

Negotiation

Reciprocal communication process, examining problem
Offering/counteroffering
Mutual or onesided solution

Answer 100

Reciprocal communication process wherein two parties or more come together to examine problems and come to a mutual agreement by offering and counteroffering, to reach either an agreement or mutually beneficial outcomes.

Question 101

Three negotiation styles:

Soft
Hard
Principled

Answer 101

Soft: Negotiation is seen as too close to competition, they are more inclined to yield to demands, make offers that are not neccesarily in their own best interest. They are simply trying to avoid excessive confrontation and conflicts.

Hard: Tough, hard tactitcs where they use competitive tactics. Less receptive to counteroffers. Start off with an extreme standpoint and then grudgingly make small concessions. Use contentious strategies of influence and say things like “Take it or leave it”.

Principled negotiation: Considering the interests and values of all involved parties and trying to reach a solution that works for everyone as much as possible. Rather than positional bargaining they focus on interests.

Focus on problem, not on the people bargaining.

Question 102

Obedience and it’s consequences

Compliance with orders
Social norms are reinforced, conformity to obey
Social hierarchy
Reduces autonomy and decision-making and awareness - agentic state - diffusion of responsibility, authority is responsible, I do because I am told.

Answer 102

Compliance with orders and directives issued by authorities, that change behavior in a significant manner.

Conformity to social norms are reinforced.

Facilitates social hierarchy.

Reduces individual autonomy and decision-making.

Can lead to deindividuation due to diffusion of responsibility and thus leads to disinhibition and potentially harmful behavior such as the ones observed in the Stanford Prision experiment and Milgram’s Obedience

Question 103

Need-Threat model

Ostracism
Temporal-need-threat model
Minimalsignal - Reflexive, Reflective (identify and act), Resignation
Fundamental human need is threathened - reactivity

Answer 103

Four fundamental human needs: belongingness, self-esteem, control and meaningful existence. When threats to these needs arise, psychological and emotional consequences arise. Ostracism activates a threat response in the brain, triggering feelings of distress, social pain and psychological discomfort.

Minimal: Detection of ostracism - need threat
Reflexive: Pain - sadness & anger.
Reflective: Attend, appraise, attribute. Thinking of motives, what it means and if it’s relevant for our needs. Needs get fortified.
Reconnecting - try to get back in
Aggression - try to harm group
Fight-or-flight reaction or Tend-And-Befriend response.

Further withdrawal - Retracting from social interactions to avoid further pain.
Resignation: Depleted resources, can’t fortify needs any longer. Failed to get back into group or into another. Leads to alienation, depression, hopelessness, unworthiness. Can’t get into the group or other group. Give up hope on social interactions, disconnected from others and society, leads to distress and potentially harmful behavior.

Question 104

Evolutionary perspective on ostracism

Answer 104

Punishment for having exhibitied antisocial or deviant social behavior that is not in accordance with the norms and culture of the group. Discouraging other individuals from doing things that harm group harmony or cooperation.

Question 105

Outgroup homogeneity bias

Answer 105

Group members’ conceptualizations of other groups are simplified and undifferentiated whilst noting diversity and complexity when thinking of the ingroup.

Perceptual tendency to assume that outgroup members are homogenous whilst ingroup ones are perceived to be heterogeneous.

Question 106

Paradigm

Answer 106

The assumptions shared by scientists regarding their field of study and what type of research methods that are relevant, a world view.

Question 107

Personality-group fit

Answer 107

People tend to join groups that fit their personality traits. The better the fit between their personality and the organisation and purpose of a group, the higher the likelihood that they would join.

Extraverts join groups that prioritise cooperation.
Agreeable people join groups that are friendly and inclusive.
Conscientious people join groups that are detail-oriented and structured.
Openness people join creative, innovative and peculiar groups.

Neurotic people tend to seek more negative environments?

Question 108

Personal identity

The part of the identity that comes from individualistic qualities and personal characteristics. Such as skills, attitudes, values, beliefs, traits and previous experiences.

Answer 108

The parts of one’s self-concept that comes from individualistic, personal qualities such as traits, past experiences, beliefs, skills and values.

Question 109

Power effects

Behavioral
Social influence
Interpersonaal
Organizational hierarchy
Psychological effects
Societal

Answer 109

Power can influence individual’s behavior. They might exhibit more dominant, leading, directive or assertive behavior to influence others to do their bidding or work. Those who are near will tend to act more submissive according to the concept of interpersonal complementarity.

Social influence: People with power will be perceived as more persuasive, credible and knowledgeable. Leads to them having more to say and decide in any given group.

Interpersonal effects: Power influence can lead to interpersonal consequences such as imbalance in perceived power, resentment, and dependency. Those with power will feel entitled, grandiose and superior.

Psychological effects: Those with power will feel in control, confident and superior. Those around them might feel inferior, insecure, vulnerable and inadequate as well as experiencing anxiety over the lack of control. They might also however feel secure and safe bcause someone they perceive to be competent are leading them and structuring the work.

Organizational effects: People with power will inevitably influence others surrounding them, leading to formation of social and organizational norms and cultures. Hierarchical power structures will be influenced by the leader, who decides allocation of resources, distribution of rewards and the formal position of each member.

Societal effects: Power disparities can lead to suppression, inequality, economic clefts and discrimination. Power can perpetuate already existing inequalities or it can bring people together, depending on who wields the power. Historically, power has been passed along to members of the same social group, thus upholding status quo, generally for worse than better.

Question 110

Primary groups

Answer 110

Close, intimate groups, relatively small. Usually family. Involuntary in many cases, you are born into it.

Question 111

Stereotypes/Prototypes

Answer 111

A set of cognitive assumptions and generalizations about a group or category of people such as characteristics etc.

Question 112

Proximity principle / Principle of proninquity.

Answer 112

The tendency to form interpersonal bonds with people or groups that are close by.

Question 113

Rules without input

Reactance

Answer 113

The complex emotional and cognitive reaction that occurs when individuals feel that their freedom or autonomy is threatened. Once is eager to affirm their independence, acting out towards threatning individuals.

For example, if a group leader imposes strict rules or regulations on a group without allowing for input or means of influencing the situation, individuals might experience reactance, resisiting compliance and even revolting against the leader.

Question 114

Reactivity

External stimuli and cues

Answer 114

The tendency to change behavior, attitudes or emotions based on environmental cues or signals. It can be anything from situational factors, norms or interpersonal dynamics.

Basically we react to different cues in the external environment in terms of cognition, emotion and behavior. This might mean that interpersonal interactions might reshape how we view something, the way we feel about it or how we behave towards it in the future. It can also be group dynamics that shift that lead to us reacting, maybe conforming to new norms or by complying with a leader due to their way of behaving that makes us more susceptive to their directives. It can also be the environment in which we are, if we are in positive ones or negative ones.

Stressful situations trigger reactivity and leads to activation of the threat/challenge appraisal.

Question 115

Realistic group conflict theory

Resources
Food
Land
Resources - material but also natural resources
Territory
Wealth
Power

Answer 115

The theory that conflict between groups comes from the competition for scare resources such as food, territory, material, natural resources, wealth, power and energy sources.

Question 116

Reference group

Answer 116

A group pr collective to which individuals compare themselves to when thinking about abilities, skills, status, attitudes and beliefs. This serves as a frame of reference or standard for where they are.

It can be an admired group that individuals identify with or groups that they don’t interact with.

Question 117

Scapegoat theory

Answer 117

Theory that posits that intergroup conflict can arise as a result of hostility when there are environmental triggers for frustration, which leads to aggressive actions towards other social groups, often ones that bear no responsibility for the environmental circumstances. This can be an outlet for pent-up anger and frustration, and leads to satisfaction. Anger and frustration can come from abuse from others such as more powerful people or groups that we can’t retaliate against, so we use a scapegoat, other social groups or people that are innocent in the matter.

When we can’t express anger towards the one who is responsible, we may resort to using a scapegoat.

This lead

Question 117

Ringelmann effect, ringlar bort

Less productivity, group size
Decreases as group size increases.

Answer 117

The tendency to be less productive as the size of the group increases, albeit at a rate that eventually gradually decreases.

Due to coordination losses and failure to reach potential.

Question 118

Secondary groups

Size
Formal structure
Impersonal relationships
Specific goals
Temporary nature

Answer 118

Larger, more impersonal, shorter lasting groups that are deliberately formed, often for task-oriented purposes. Less emotional and more formal.

Proscenium.
Football team.

Question 119

Self-reference effect

Answer 119

The tendency to remember information related to oneself in higher degree than other information.

Question 120

Self-stereotyping

Answer 120

Internalizing general stereotypes about the group to which one belongs, to the degree that one believes them to be true.

Question 121

Social comparison

Orientation

Answer 121

Process of contrasting one’s personal qualities and outcomes, including beliefs, attitudes, values, abilities, accomplishments and experiences to others.

Social comparison orientation: The degree to which we tend to compare ourselves to others.

Question 122

Social dominance theory

Conflict
Hierarchy
Status quo
Rebelling and striving for change
Power structures

Answer 122

An approach to conflict and domination that assumes that intergroup conflicts stem from the hierarchical structures of rank in society, where the one’s with power will try to maintain status quo and the lower ranked classes will consistently try to rebel and strive for change.

The inequality comes from structured institutionalized discrimination that perpetuates the social clefts.

The oppression takes form in discriminative legislation, prejudice, violence and exploitation.

Legitimatization of inequality can take form in ideologies regarding superiority in terms of race, sexuality, ethnicity, religious beliefs etc. That way the socially dominant group can justify and rationalize the existing social hierarchy. They deem it their right to have power, that it isn’t unfair and that this is justified by custom or law.

Question 123

Social facilitation and explanatory theories

Answer 123

Drive theory: Increase in arousal when others are present, compresence is the state of responding in presence of others. Therefore we get an arousal that makes us ready to act in any situation, even novel and unique ones.

The arousal drive makes it so that the dominant response is enhanced due to extra energy, thus one performs better on familiar tasks or easy ones. Worse on complex cognitive tasks or unfamiliar ones Audiences trigger increases activity in cardiac and vascular activity. When one perceives the situation as a challenge that they can take on, the arousal leads to higher performance. If we appraise the situation as a threat, we become stressed and perform worse.

Evaluation apprehension: In fear of being evaluated, we perform better, but this fear can also riddle us with anxiety resulting in worse performance.

Mere presence theory: Like drive but without emphasis on dominant response.

Question 124

Social loafing

Answer 124

Reduction in productivity and effort due to perceived lack of potential to contribute or because one feels that they won’t be evaluated. Can be avoided by placing demands on people and following up their individual progress.
Loafing is less likely when they work with exciting, challenging and involving tasks. Social compensation is when members have to compensate for lack of effort of other members.

Question 125

Social categorization

Complexity
Group formations
Social comparison
Guides behavior

Answer 125

Perceptual classification of people, including the self into categories.

1. Simplifying complexity - Makes it easier to navigate the world as people with common attributes are grouped together. We do that all the time, categorizing to simplify our experience, we can’t take in all the complex aspects of humans, if we did, we would get overwhelmed.
2. Creates in- and outgroups: Creates groups where members share common traits, makes us feel safe, secure, connected and supported. Can lead to prejudice and discrimination. Careful with making group attribution errors.
3. Facilitates social comparison: If we categorize people into groups we can perceive information about or ingroup versus outgroups, we can get info about our social identity and standing as well as get inspired to improve, feel good about ourselves etc.
4. Guides behavior and interaction: If we categorize ourselves to a group, we are susceptible to the social influence of the leader, the social and cultural norms and this helps us decide how to act in certain situations, guided by norms and expectations. When grouping people together, we influence how we perceive them, their social status and their behavior. It also affects our behavior towards them, how we allocate resources and how we make decisions. Group dynamics, intergroup interactions etc are also influenced by social categorization.

Question 126

Free riding

Lack of contribution, believe in social compensation of others, (social compensation) exerting more effort to compensate for others.
Still enjoy resources and benefits.
Social laboring - exerting more effort because of social identity.
Sucker effect, happens when one feels others are not putting in effort, don’t wanna be a sucker who works harder than others.

Minimize free riding: Reduce size, strengthen group performance role, encouraging and emphasising members’ sense of indispensability as well as sanctioning those who contribute too little. We have to hold them accountable.

Answer 126

Contributing less to a collective task than others, counting on others to compensate for the lack of effort. They still however enjoy the benefits and resources of the group, without contributing. Norms of fairness warn group members to not do this, they might still do it if they feel like they are not needed. Also can occur because of the sucker effect, if they feel others are not performing at their capacity, even though they are competent, just lazy.

Question 127

Social networks

Grouplike
Lacks boundraries
Less influenced by norms held by people in it
Easy to get in and out - only need to be connected to one node in the network. Not as cohesive or influential in terms of social norms, does not lead to the same type of social identity.

Answer 127

Very group-like but lack boundraries of who is a part and not. To be a part, you just need to make a connection with one of the exisiting members of the network. Not as cohesive and does not lead to the same type of group behavior and social identity.

Question 128

Social values orientation

Dispositional tendency to react to conflicts.
Proself
Prosocial
Way of interacting, negotiating and cooperating.

Answer 128

Dispositional tendency to respond to conflicts in a proself or prosocial manner. Proself might respond with competetiveness and try to maximize their own personal outcomes.

Prosocial people might respond more so with collaborative actions and try to find solutions that work for all parties involved.

Question 129

Public good dilemma

Give some dilemma, instead of common goods, take some.
Not paying taxes
Free riding - not contributing but earning benefits

Answer 129

A dilemma where the failure to contribute to a collective goal or project doesn’t lead to the exclusion of members or their access to the benefits of the task. For example if a road is built, citizens might not have to contribute to the construction in order to use the road. Free riding is one of the mechanisms underlying this dilemma.

Collective action problem: Building a road or doing some other collective task requires collective action and effort. The absence of which leads to suboptimal results. Individual incentives may lead to underinvestment in public goods or exploitation and overuse of them.

Social dilemma: It is a social dilemma because individuals might want the group to thrive but might prioritize personal short-term benefits and interests, which undermines group interest and benefit.

Solutions:
- Incentive mechanisms: rewards, punishments.
- Social norms: Promote norms that value cooperation, fairness and reciprocity.
-

Question 130

Social capital

Answer 130

The degree to which individuals, groups or larger aggregates of people are linked in social relationships that offer them benefits such as productive benefits or favors and privileges.

Question 131

Sociometry

Collect data about social interpersonal relations in a group, asking about likes/dislikes and work partner preferences. Patterns of hierarchy and interaction.

Answer 131

Research method that collects data about social interpersonal relationships regarding their preferences regarding likes and dislikes about people, patterns of interaction, hierarchy etc.

Example: You can use questionnaires to ask a students in a class room to fill out with whom they would like to work with, who they want to spend their free time with or whom they consider to be close friends. With this information you can make a sociograph, outlining the different relationships, subgroups and conflicts.

You might be able to determine the structure of social networks, identify central and peripheral individuals and also assess how cohesive a group is. Also who bridges different parts of the network, who is central to the informational flow, who is most influential, who is most popular.

Predictive use: Predict behavior - which member that most likely will be innovative and spread new ideas and give way to new behavior. Who will shape the social norms of the group, by being influential. You can also predict behavior due to shifts in group dynamics and structure, which might affect different subgroups in different ways.

You can forecast social stability and conflict:
By examining density of the network as well as nature of connections such as reciprocity you can gather information about cohesion and social stability that might give you predictive ability regarding the potential emergence of conflict.

You can also predict potential shifts in leadership status and influence.

You can anticipate the impact of interventions by examining who is most central and influential and thus you can predict how effective the intervention will be. If we want to target an intervention at damaging company culture we might think to target the formal leader that is not actually the most influential one, the intervention might not be effective.

Tightly-knit team will resist change from outsiders.

Forecast who will be forming sororities and social clubs in a university course, based on how many they know.

Question 132

Sociogram

Answer 132

Visual representation of data collected from sociometry. You might draw a network of nodes with arrows or lines that link them together based on their affiliation and the intensity of the relationship or attraction between the peers or how frequently they interact by varying the thickness of the connecting lines.
You can use the sociogram to easier visually represent the social structures and dynamics of a group and identify social subgroups and key individuals in the group.

Conclusions: Which individuals are central, leading the group forward through social influence? Are there sub groups?

Predictive potential: Use the information about key individuals to predict future leadership in the group. Use information about peripheral individuals to predict people who might disband the group. subgroups might indicate future intragroup conflict and dynamic shifts.

Question 133

Expectancy-states theory and Status characteristics

Expectancy-states theory: Explaining which person in a group will gain status and who won’t.

Status characteristics: Characteristics we implicity consider when we consider ability or prestige.

Specific status characteristics: The characteristics that are relevant to the task and specific situation, that we take into consideration when gauging a person’s abilities, competencies and skills. A big number of specific status characteristics will garner you status and increase your responsibilities, influence, resources and reject influence of others. E.g intelligence, decisiveness, authority, dominance, expertise, gregariousness.

Diffuse status characteristics: Factors that are not specifically tied to the personal characteristics and tht aren’t relevant to the task at hand or purpose of the group. Such as gender, sexuality, age, ethnicity, religious beliefs, nationality.

Answer 133

Specific ones are those characteristics that are personal and task-specific individual behavior that one can use to estimate relative ability, skill and competence and social value both when considering one-self but also others.’

Diffuse ones are characteristics that are general personal qualities such as age, ethnicity, gender, age etc. These are also taken into consideration when gauging the ability, skill, competence and social value of people, either consciously or subconsciously.

Question 134

Stereotype content model

Answer 134

When we encounter people we usually stereotype them along two dimensions: warmth and competence.

Ingroups are favored to be more warm and competent.

Outgroups are thought to be colder and more incompetent.

Question 135

Sucker effect

Answer 135

Exerting less effort to avoid being a sucker, when a lot of other people aren’t trying their best either. Most commonly occuring when one feels that the other’s are competent, just lazy. You don’t want to be the sucker that “tries too hard”.

Question 136

SYMLOG

Three dimensions of behavior
Dominance
Acceptance of authority
Friendliness

Group dynamics and roles
Mapping and profiling

Answer 136

Systematic multiple levels of observation of groups.

Three dimensions:
1. Dominance vs. Submissiveness
2. Friendliness vs. Unfriendlyness
3. Acceptance vs. Non-acceptance of task-orientation: How accepting a person is of task-oriented behavior, focus on achieving goals, being productive and effective.

Helps identify roles within groups, socio-emotional, task-oriented and leaders. Helps understand how roles aid or hinder cohesion and performance.

Mapping and profiling:
Maps out individuals on a three-dimensional grid that helps visualize roles, attractions, behaviors and status. As well as attitudes and group dynamic interplay. Helps in understanding balance and relation between harmony and conflict.

Evaluation and feedback: Gives information that serves as evaluation and feedback to know how to improve group functioning by giving insight into where intervention is needed: improved communication, resolving conflicts and leadership skills.

Question 137

Systems theory

Interconnected & Interdependent
Interactions
Feedback loops
Equilibrium

Wholeness
Boundraries
Dynamic
Open vs closed
Complexity

Answer 137

Focus on understanding groups as coherent, dynamic systems that are interconnected, with clear boundraries.

The group members’ in the system are interconnected and they are interdependent, influencing each other, mainly through behavior. The group is more than the sum of the parts.

Systems theory thinks of groups as distinguished systems that differentiate members from non-members - thus becomes interaction with external environment.

Positive feedback reinforces behavior, negative feedback sustains stability.

Groups strive for balance, when they are disturbed they aim to stabilize.

Open systems interact with their environment, closed ones are rigid and less adaptable.

Question 138

Different types of tasks

Additive
Conjunctive
Disjunctive
Optimizing
Maximizing
Divisable
Compensatory

Answer 138

Additive: All of the group members’ input is added. Lifting a great weight.
Conjunctive: All of the group must put in their effort to solve the problem. Climbing a mountain
Disjunctive: A task that is solved through the best input from the pool of input from all members.
Optimizing: Quality over quantity, best solution or correct one is needed.
Maximizing: Producing as much as possible. Such as generating as many ideas as possible.
Divisable: The task can be broken into parts that different members can do.
Compensatory: Averaging the input of many members to one final product.

Question 139

Tend-and-befriend response

Answer 139

A physiological and psychological response to stressful events by nurturing, tending to and taking care of people around us and in our group and initiating and strengthening pre-existing relationships to feel secure and safe.

Example: Taking care of children when husband is angry, seeking support from others and engaging in protectful behaviors.

Tending: Reaching out to acquiantances and strengthening relations to increase social bonding and security.

Contrasts to fight-or-flight.

Question 140

Tit-for-tat

Answer 140

Tendency to respond in a similar fashion to others’ behaviors. Cooperation is met with cooperation and competition is met with the same.

Good way to reverse or break the spiral of competition and distrust. Builds trust because it is predictable and thus the other party realises that if they cooperate then so will we.

Question 141

Trucking game experiment

Answer 141

Two truck companies, one short route that is one-lane one longer alternative road. Companies earn money based on speed of delivery.

NO gate: Most profit for both bcs of cooperation.
Unilateral gate/threat: Conflict, leading to less profit for both, where the one without gate suffers most.
Bilateral gate: Most loss of profit out of all the scenarios.

Power to threaten leads to conflict. If both parties have equal capacity to threaten and attack then none does in fear of retaliation.

Question 142

Two-factor model of leadership

Answer 142

Task-leadership: Task-oriented, less emphasis on building relationships with subordinates, more direct, clear structure etc. Roles, assigns roles to people, carefully monitors work and gives feedback. Members are to adhere to standards and procedures. Focus on efficiency and productivity as well as accomplishing goals.

Relationship leadership: Oriented towards group members, concern for them, fostering their well-being and are supportive and inclusive and encourages open communication.
Focus is on building relations, cohesion and well-being as well as making sure the team is motivated and has a good group dynamic.

Question 143

Ultimatum game

Answer 143

Game where fairness is explored. The game revolves around the division of sums given by experimenter. One party makes an offer, and the other party chooses to accept or reject. If they reject, nobody wins. Human decision-making is influenced by values, fairness and emotions. Even if the rational response is to accept any sum, no matter how low, it shows that we value fairness and equitable treatment.

Question 144

Unilateral power tactics

Answer 144

No need for cooperation, the party with power can impose demands, threaten with punishment, or say “this has already been decided”.

Question 145

Bilateral power tactics

Answer 145

Both parties have a say in the matter, even if there is an influencer and a target object. Give-and-take, with compromise sometimes.

Question 146

Wisdom of crowds

Diversity of opinion
Independence
Decentralization
Aggregation

Answer 146

When an averaged input of many people leads to a more accurate answer than the one of an expert.

Diversity: There is a wide variation of information that is unique.
Independence: Everyone answer without being influenced by others.
Decentralization: Drawing on local, accessable information.
Aggregation: Voting or averaging answers.

Question 147

Zeitgeist theory

Leadership emergence
Situational factors
Spirit of times - social, cultural, historical
Needs of situation

Situational approach - similar to Field’s contingency theory
Leader-member relations
Leader qualities
Size of group
Cohesion
Type of task

Leader-zeitgeist fit

Answer 147

History is shaped not by the historical leaders but by the spirit of times. Leaders just happen to fit the time that they live in.

Emergence of leaders is very tied to the prevalent social, cultural and historical context of the time - the spirit of the times, or zeitgeist. It is less so related to personal characteristics of the leader.

Each zeitgeist has it’s specific context, and demands different types of leaders. In times of war, we need a leader that is strong and dominant. In times of social oppression we need a revolutionist that can inspire the general public.

Social norms, values and collective beliefs influence who is deemed to be a suitable leader and thus creates space for those types of individuals. Leaders reflect the needs, ideologies and aspirations of their time.

The leaders emerge because they seize the opportunity since they fit the position. The prevailing conditions create the opportunity.

The leader-zeitgeist fit is crucial for the emergence of the specific leader.

Question 148

Leader’s traits

Situational factors - lewin’s field theory

Answer 148

Assertiveness
Dominance
Narcissism
Self-monitoring.

Interaction between traits and situation.
Task-oriented leader: Conscientiousness, organized, achievement-oriented
Interpersonal leader: Gregarious, extraverted

Question 149

Group attribution error

Error in generalizing beliefs attitudes, personal characteristics to represent group

Answer 149

Mistakenly assuming that the specific personal characteristics, beliefs, attitudes to represent the group’s preferences, that they belong to.

Attributing the characteristics of a group member to the belong that they belong to, because their individual characteristics would be similar to the one of the group.

Question 150

Threat-challenge model

Answer 150

The reaction we have to a stressful situation. If we see it as a challenge we can handle (we have the competence, resilience and resources), we get a cardiac output that enhances our performance. We feel excited, stimulated, focused and confident. This is partially due to physiological activation of the cardiac output, more blood flow and vasodilation, blood vessels expand which leads to increased blood flow to brain and muscles.

If we however see the situation as a threat (lack of confidence, competence resilience and resources) we do not get this increase in performance output. Instead we might feel anxious, stressed, afraid and dubious of their abilities. We respond with vascular resistance, blood vessels contract, leading to less blood flow to muscles and brain. Impairs performance.

Primary appraisal and secondary appraisal:
We first appraise the stressful situation, the demands it poses. It focuses on evaluating if the task is relevant to our goals and if it’s worth it.

Secondary: We appraise our resources, resilience and competences as well as support network, to see if we have the means to cope with the situation, if we can, it becomes a challenge, if we can’t, it’s a threat.