GRE Psychology CH 12-15 Flashcards
Aggression
any behavior or action that involves the intention to harm someone else
Altruism
the providing of help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so
Attitudes
the evaluation of objects, events, or ideas
Attributions
people’s causal explanations for why events or actions occur
Bystander intervention effect
the failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need
Cognitive dissonance
an uncomfortable mental state due to conflicts between attitudes or between attitudes and behavior
Compliance
the tendency to agree to do things requested by others
Conformity
the altering of one’s opinions or behaviors to match those of others or to match social norms
Deindividuation
a phenomenon of low self-awareness, in which people lose their individuality and fail to attend to personal standards
Discrimination
the inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people based solely on their group membership
Elaboration likelihood model
a theory of how persuasive messages lead to attitude changes
Explicit attitudes
attitudes that people can report
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
the extent to which people feel frustrated predicts the likelihood that they will be aggressive
Fundamental attribution error
the tendency to overemphasize personal factors and underestimate situational factors in explaining behavior
Implicit attitudes
attitudes that influence our feelings and behavior at an unconscious level
Ingroup favoritism
the tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the ingroup more than members of the outgroup
Nonverbal behavior
the facial expressions, gestures, mannerisms, and movements by which one communicates with others
Personal attributions
explanations that refer to internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, and effort
Persuasion
the active and conscious effort to change attitudes through the transmission of a message
Prejudice
the usually negative affective or attitudinal responses associated with stereotypes
Prosocial
tending to benefit others
Self-fulfilling prophecy
people’s tendency to behave in ways that confirm their own or others’ expectations
Situational attributions
explanations that refer to external events, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or the actions of other people
Social loafing
the tendency for people to work less hard in a group than when working alone
Social norms
expected standards to conduct, which influence behavior
Stereotypes
cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups
Behavioral approach system (BAS)
the brain system involved in the pursuit of incentives or rewards
Behavioral inhibition system (BIS)
the brain system that is sensitive to punishment that therefore inhibits behavior that might lead to danger or pain
Defense mechanisms
unconscious mental strategies the mind uses to protect itself from conflict and distress
Ego
in psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that tries to satisfy the wishes of the id while being responsive to the dictates of the superego
Five-factor theory
the idea that personality can be described using five factors: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
Humanistic approaches
approaches to studying personality that emphasize personal experience and belief systems; they propose that people seek personal growth to fulfill their human potential
Id
in psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that is completely submerged in the unconscious and operates according to the pleasure principle
Idiographic approaches
person-centered approaches to studying personality that focus on individual lives and how various characteristics are integrated into unique persons
Interactionists
theorists who believe that behavior is determined jointly by underlying dispositions and situations
Nomothetic approaches
approaches to studying personality that focus on how people vary across common traits
Objective measures
relatively direct assessments of personality, usually based on information gathered through self-report questionnaires or observer ratings
Personality
the characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors that are relatively stable in an individual over time and across circumstances
Personality trait
a characteristic; a dispositional tendency to act in a certain way over time and across circumstances
Personality types
discrete categories based on global personality characteristics
Projective measures
personality tests that examine unconscious processes by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli
Psychodynamic theory
Freudian theory that unconscious forces, such as wishes and motives, influence behavior
Psychosexual stage
according to Freud, the developmental stages that correspond to the pursuit of satisfaction of libidinal urges
Self-serving bias
the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors
Situationism
the theory that behavior is determined more by situations than by personality traits
Sociometer
an internal monitor of social acceptance or rejection
Superego
in psychodynamic theory, the internalization of societal and parental standards of conduct
Temperaments
biologically based tendencies or feel or act in certain ways
Trait approach
an approach to studying personality that focuses on the extent to which individuals differ in personality dispositions
Agoraphobia
an anxiety disorder marked by fear of being in situations, escape may be difficult or impossible
Antisocial personality disorder
a personality disorder marked by a lack of empathy and remorse
Assessment
in psychology, examination of a person’s mental state to diagnose possible psychological disorders
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a disorder characterized by restless, inattentive, and impulsive behaviors
Autism
a developmental disorder involving deficits in social interaction, impaired communication, and restricted interests
Bipolar disorder
a mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania
Borderline personality disorder
a personality disorder characterized by identity, affective, and impulse disturbances
Cognitive-behavioral approach
a diagnostic model that views psychopathology as the result of learned, maladaptive cognitions
Delusions
false personal beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality
Diathesis-stress model
a diagnostic model that proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event
Disorganized behavior
acting in strange or unusual ways, including strange movement of limbs, bizarre speech, and inappropriate self-care, such as failing to dress properly or bathe
Dissociative identity disorder (DID)
the occurrence of two or more distinct identities in the same individual
Dysthymia
a form of depression that is not severe enough to be diagnosed as major depression
Etiology
factors that contribute to the development of a disorder
Family systems model
a diagnostic model that considers symptoms within an individual as indicating problems within the family
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
diffuse state of constant anxiety unassociated with any specific object or event
Hallucinations
false sensory perceptions that are experienced without an external source
Learned helplessness model
a cognitive model of depression in which people feel unable to control events around them
Loosening of associations
a speech pattern among schizophrenic patients in which their thoughts are disorganized or meaningless
Major depression
a disorder characterized by severe negative moods or a lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities
Multiaxial system
the system used in the DSM that provides assessment along five axes describing important mental health factors
Negative symptoms
symptoms of schizophrenia marked by deficits in functioning such as apathy, lack of emotion, and slowed speech and movement
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
an anxiety disorder characterized by frequent intrusive thoughts and compulsive actions
Panic disorder
an anxiety disorder characterized by sudden, overwhelming attacks of terror
Positive symptoms
symptoms of schizophrenia, such as delusions and hallucinations, that are excesses in behavior
Psychopathology
a disorder of the mind
Schizophrenia
a mental disorder characterized by alterations in perceptions, emotions, thoughts, or consciousness
Sociocultural model
a diagnostic model that views psychopathology as the result of interaction between individuals and their cultures
Anti-anxiety drugs
a class of psychotropic medications used for the treatment of anxiety
Antidepressants
a class of psychotropic medications used to treat depression
Antipsychotics
a class of drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other disorders that involve psychosis
Applied behavioral analysis (ABA)
an intensive treatment for autism, based on operant conditioning
Biological therapies
treatment based on medical approaches to illness and to disease
Client-centered therapy
an empathic approach to therapy; it encourages personal growth through greater self-understanding
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
a therapy that incorporates techniques from behavioral therapy and cognitive therapy to correct faulty thinking and change maladaptive behaviors
Cognitive restructuring
a therapy that strives to help patients recognize maladaptive thought patterns and replace them with ways of viewing the world that are more in tune with reality
Cognitive therapy
treatment based on the idea that distorted thoughts produce maladaptive behaviors and emotions
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)
a form of therapy used to treat borderline personality disorder
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
a procedure used to treat depression; it involves administering a strong electrical current to the patient’s brain
Exposure
a behavioral therapy technique that involves repeated exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus or situation
Expressed emotion
a pattern of interactions that includes emotional over-involvement, critical comments, and hostility directed toward a patient by family members
Insight
a goal of some types of therapy; a patient’s understanding of his or her own psychological processes
Psychotherapy
the generic name given to formal psychological treatment
Psychotropic medications
drugs that affect mental processes
any behavior or action that involves the intention to harm someone else
Aggression
the providing of help when it is needed, without any apparent reward for doing so
Altruism
the evaluation of objects, events, or ideas
Attitudes
people’s causal explanations for why events or actions occur
Attributions
the failure to offer help by those who observe someone in need
Bystander intervention effect
an uncomfortable mental state due to conflicts between attitudes or between attitudes and behavior
Cognitive dissonance
the tendency to agree to do things requested by others
Compliance
the altering of one’s opinions or behaviors to match those of others or to match social norms
Conformity
a phenomenon of low self-awareness, in which people lose their individuality and fail to attend to personal standards
Deindividuation
the inappropriate and unjustified treatment of people based solely on their group membership
Discrimination
a theory of how persuasive messages lead to attitude changes
Elaboration likelihood model
attitudes that people can report
Explicit attitudes
the extent to which people feel frustrated predicts the likelihood that they will be aggressive
Frustration-aggression hypothesis
the tendency to overemphasize personal factors and underestimate situational factors in explaining behavior
Fundamental attribution error
attitudes that influence our feelings and behavior at an unconscious level
Implicit attitudes
the tendency for people to evaluate favorably and privilege members of the ingroup more than members of the outgroup
Ingroup favoritism
the facial expressions, gestures, mannerisms, and movements by which one communicates with others
Nonverbal behavior
explanations that refer to internal characteristics, such as abilities, traits, moods, and effort
Personal attributions
the active and conscious effort to change attitudes through the transmission of a message
Persuasion
the usually negative affective or attitudinal responses associated with stereotypes
Prejudice
tending to benefit others
Prosocial
people’s tendency to behave in ways that confirm their own or others’ expectations
Self-fulfilling prophecy
explanations that refer to external events, such as the weather, luck, accidents, or the actions of other people
Situational attributions
the tendency for people to work less hard in a group than when working alone
Social loafing
expected standards to conduct, which influence behavior
Social norms
cognitive schemas that allow for easy, fast processing of information about people based on their membership in certain groups
Stereotypes
the brain system involved in the pursuit of incentives or rewards
Behavioral approach system (BAS)
the brain system that is sensitive to punishment that therefore inhibits behavior that might lead to danger or pain
Behavioral inhibition system (BIS)
unconscious mental strategies the mind uses to protect itself from conflict and distress
Defense mechanisms
in psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that tries to satisfy the wishes of the id while being responsive to the dictates of the superego
Ego
the idea that personality can be described using five factors: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
Five-factor theory
approaches to studying personality that emphasize personal experience and belief systems; they propose that people seek personal growth to fulfill their human potential
Humanistic approaches
in psychodynamic theory, the component of personality that is completely submerged in the unconscious and operates according to the pleasure principle
Id
person-centered approaches to studying personality that focus on individual lives and how various characteristics are integrated into unique persons
Idiographic approaches
theorists who believe that behavior is determined jointly by underlying dispositions and situations
Interactionists
approaches to studying personality that focus on how people vary across common traits
Nomothetic approaches
relatively direct assessments of personality, usually based on information gathered through self-report questionnaires or observer ratings
Objective measures
the characteristic thoughts, emotional responses, and behaviors that are relatively stable in an individual over time and across circumstances
Personality
a characteristic; a dispositional tendency to act in a certain way over time and across circumstances
Personality trait
discrete categories based on global personality characteristics
Personality types
personality tests that examine unconscious processes by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli
Projective measures
Freudian theory that unconscious forces, such as wishes and motives, influence behavior
Psychodynamic theory
according to Freud, the developmental stages that correspond to the pursuit of satisfaction of libidinal urges
Psychosexual stage
the tendency for people to take personal credit for success but blame failure on external factors
Self-serving bias
the theory that behavior is determined more by situations than by personality traits
Situationism
an internal monitor of social acceptance or rejection
Sociometer
in psychodynamic theory, the internalization of societal and parental standards of conduct
Superego
biologically based tendencies or feel or act in certain ways
Temperaments
an approach to studying personality that focuses on the extent to which individuals differ in personality dispositions
Trait approach
an anxiety disorder marked by fear of being in situations, escape may be difficult or impossible
Agoraphobia
a personality disorder marked by a lack of empathy and remorse
Antisocial personality disorder
in psychology, examination of a person’s mental state to diagnose possible psychological disorders
Assessment
a disorder characterized by restless, inattentive, and impulsive behaviors
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a developmental disorder involving deficits in social interaction, impaired communication, and restricted interests
Autism
a mood disorder characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania
Bipolar disorder
a personality disorder characterized by identity, affective, and impulse disturbances
Borderline personality disorder
a diagnostic model that views psychopathology as the result of learned, maladaptive cognitions
Cognitive-behavioral approach
false personal beliefs based on incorrect inferences about reality
Delusions
a diagnostic model that proposes that a disorder may develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event
Diathesis-stress model
acting in strange or unusual ways, including strange movement of limbs, bizarre speech, and inappropriate self-care, such as failing to dress properly or bathe
Disorganized behavior
the occurrence of two or more distinct identities in the same individual
Dissociative identity disorder (DID)
a form of depression that is not severe enough to be diagnosed as major depression
Dysthymia
factors that contribute to the development of a disorder
Etiology
a diagnostic model that considers symptoms within an individual as indicating problems within the family
Family systems model
diffuse state of constant anxiety unassociated with any specific object or event
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
false sensory perceptions that are experienced without an external source
Hallucinations
a cognitive model of depression in which people feel unable to control events around them
Learned helplessness model
a speech pattern among schizophrenic patients in which their thoughts are disorganized or meaningless
Loosening of associations
a disorder characterized by severe negative moods or a lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities
Major depression
the system used in the DSM that provides assessment along five axes describing important mental health factors
Multiaxial system
symptoms of schizophrenia marked by deficits in functioning such as apathy, lack of emotion, and slowed speech and movement
Negative symptoms
an anxiety disorder characterized by frequent intrusive thoughts and compulsive actions
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
an anxiety disorder characterized by sudden, overwhelming attacks of terror
Panic disorder
symptoms of schizophrenia, such as delusions and hallucinations, that are excesses in behavior
Positive symptoms
a disorder of the mind
Psychopathology
a mental disorder characterized by alterations in perceptions, emotions, thoughts, or consciousness
Schizophrenia
a diagnostic model that views psychopathology as the result of interaction between individuals and their cultures
Sociocultural model
a class of psychotropic medications used for the treatment of anxiety
Anti-anxiety drugs
a class of psychotropic medications used to treat depression
Antidepressants
a class of drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other disorders that involve psychosis
Antipsychotics
an intensive treatment for autism, based on operant conditioning
Applied behavioral analysis (ABA)
treatment based on medical approaches to illness and to disease
Biological therapies
an empathic approach to therapy; it encourages personal growth through greater self-understanding
Client-centered therapy
a therapy that incorporates techniques from behavioral therapy and cognitive therapy to correct faulty thinking and change maladaptive behaviors
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
a therapy that strives to help patients recognize maladaptive thought patterns and replace them with ways of viewing the world that are more in tune with reality
Cognitive restructuring
treatment based on the idea that distorted thoughts produce maladaptive behaviors and emotions
Cognitive therapy
a form of therapy used to treat borderline personality disorder
Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT)
a procedure used to treat depression; it involves administering a strong electrical current to the patient’s brain
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
a behavioral therapy technique that involves repeated exposure to an anxiety-producing stimulus or situation
Exposure
a pattern of interactions that includes emotional over-involvement, critical comments, and hostility directed toward a patient by family members
Expressed emotion
a goal of some types of therapy; a patient’s understanding of his or her own psychological processes
Insight
the generic name given to formal psychological treatment
Psychotherapy
drugs that affect mental processes
Psychotropic medications
