GRE Psychology CH 1-3 Flashcards
Adaptations
physical characteristics, skills, and abilities
Behavior
wide variety of actions that occur in al organisms
Behaviorism
a psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing behavior
Cognitive neuroscience
the study of the neural mechanisms that underlie thought, learning, and memory
Cognitive psychology
the study of how people think, learn, and remember
Critical thinking
a systematic way of evaluating info to reach reasonable conclusions
Culture
the beliefs, values, rules, norms, and customs existing within a group of people who share a common language and environment
Evolutionary theory
organisms change over time due to the inheritance of favorable genetic adaptations which are then passed to offspring
Functionalism
theory that mind came into existence over the course of human evolution and works as it does to help humans adapt to environmental demands
Gestalt theory
the whole of personal experience is different from the sum of its parts, proposed by Wertheimer and Kohler
Introspection
a systematic examination of subjective mental experiences that requires people to inspect and report on the content of their thoughts; first used by Wundt
Mind
mental activity, result of neurons and associated chemical reactions (senses, memories, thoughts, feelings)
Mind/body problem
Are the mind and body separate and distinct, or is the mind simply the physical brain’s subjective experience?
Natural selection
the process by which organisms’ random mutations that are adaptive are passed along and random mutations that hinder survival are not
Nature/nurture debate
influence each other in shaping brain, mind, and behavior
Psychoanalysis
a method developed by Freud that attempts to bring the contents of the unconscious to conscious awareness so that conflicts can be revealed
Psychological science
the study of mind, brain, and behavior
Social psychology
the study of group dynamics in relation to psychological processes
Stream of consciousness
idea that mind consists of an ever-changing, continuous serious of thoughts, proposed by James
Structuralism
school of thought that is based on idea that conscious experience can be studied when broken down into its underlying components, est. by Titchener
Unconscious
the mental processes that operate below the level of conscious awareness
Accuracy
the extent to which an experimental measure is free from error
Brain imaging
a range of experimental techniques that make brain structures and brain activity visible
Case study
special type of observational/descriptive study that involves intensive examination of one person or a few individuals (clinical case studies) or one or a few organizations (organizational case studies)
Central tendency
a measure that represents the typical behavior of the group as a whole
Confound
anything that affects a dependent variable and may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of a study
Control group
the participants in the study that receive no intervention or n intervention different from the one being studied
Correlational study
a research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them
Cross-sectional studies
research deign that compares different groups of make inferences about both
Culturally sensitive research
studies that take into account the ways culture affects thoughts, feelings, and actions
Data
objective observations or measurements
Dependent variable
in an experiment, the measure that is affected by manipulation of the independent variable
Descriptive statistics
overall summary of data
Descriptive studies
involve observing and noting behavior to analyze it objectively
Directionality problem
when researchers find a relationship between two variables in the correlational study, they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
a device that measures electrical activity in the brain
Experiment
a study that tests causal hypotheses by measuring and manipulating variables
Experimental group
the participants in a study that receive the intervention
Experimenter expectancy effect
actual change in the behavior of the people or animals being observed that is due to observer bias
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
an imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain
Hypothesis
a specific prediction of what should be observed in the world if a theory is correct
Independent variable
in an experiment, the condition that is manipulated by the experimenter to examine its impact on the dependent variable
Inferential statistics
Mathematical methods that employ probability theory for deducing (inferring) the properties of a population from the analysis of the properties of a data sample drawn from it. It is concerned also with the precision and reliability of the inferences it helps to draw.
Institutional review boards (ERBs)
groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and provides for the physical and emotional well-being of research participants
Longitudinal studies
involve observing and classifying developmental changes that occur in the same people over time
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
a method of brain imaging that produces high-quality images of the brain
Mean
a measure of central tendency that is the arithmetic average of a set of numbers
Median
a measure of central tendency that is the value in a set of numbers that falls exactly halfway between the lowest and highest values
Meta-analysis
a “study of studies” that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion
Mode
a measure of central tendency that is the most frequent score or value in a set
Naturalistic observation
a passive descriptive study in which observers do not change or alter ongoing behavior
Observational technique
a research method of careful and systematic assessment and coding of overt behavior
Observer bias
systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer’s expectations
Participant observation
a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is actively involved in the situation
Population
everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in
Positron emission tomography (PET)
a method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream
Random assignment
the procedure for placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable
Reactivity
when the knowledge that one is being observed alters the behavior being observed
Reliability
the extent to which a measure is stable and consistent over time in similar conditions
Replication
repetition of an experiment to confirm the results
Research
scientific process that involves the systematic and careful collection of data
Response performance
a research method in which researchers quantify perceptual or cognitive processes in response to a specific stimulus
Sample
a subset of a population
Scatterplot
graph that illustrates the relationship between two variables
Scientific method
a systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena to answer questions about what happens, when it happens, what causes it, and why
Selection bias
when participants in different groups in an experiment differ systematically
Self-report method
a method of data collection in which people are asked to provide information about themselves, such as in questionnaires or surveys
Standard deviation
a statistical measure of how far away each value is, on average, from the mean
Theory
a model of interconnected ideas and concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events
Third variable problem
when the experimenter cannot directly manipulate the independent variable and therefore cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the dependent variable
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
the use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain regions
Validity
the extent to which the data collected addresses the research hypothesis in the way intended
Variability
in a set of numbers, how widely dispersed the values are from each other and from the mean
Variable
something in the world that can be measured and that can vary
Acetylcholine (Ach)
the neurotransmitter responsible for motor control at the junction between nerves and muscles; also involved in mental processes such as learning, memory, sleeping, and dreaming
Action potential
the neural impulse that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons
Agonists
any drug that enhances the actions of a specific neurotransmitter
All-or-none principle
the principle whereby a neuron fires with the same potency each time, although frequency can vary; it either fires or not
Amygdala
a brain structure that serves a vital role in our learning to associate things with emotional responses and in processing emotional information
Antagonists
any drug that inhibits the action of a specific neurotransmitter
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
a major component of PNS; regulates body’s internal environ. by stimulating glands and maintaining internal organs
Axon
a long narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which info is transmitted to other neurons
Basal ganglia
a system of subcortical structures that are important for the initiation of planned movement
Brainstem
a section of the bottom of the brain, housing the most basic programs of survival, such as breathing, swallowing, vomiting, urination, and orgasm
Broca’s area
the left frontal region of the brain, crucial for the production of language
Cell body
in the neuron, where info from thousands of other neurons is collected and processed
Central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord
Cerebellum
a large, convoluted protuberance at the back of the brainstem, essential for coordinated movement and balance
Cerebral cortex
the outer layer of brain tissue, which forms the convoluted surface of the brain
Chromosomes
structures within the cell body that are made up of genes
Dentrites
branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect information from other neurons
Dizygotic twins
twin siblings who result from two separately fertilized eggs
Dominant gene
a gene that is expressed in the offspring whenever it is present
Dopamine
a monoamine neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and motor control
Endocrine system
a communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviors, and actions
Endorphins
a neurotransmitter involved in natural pain reduction and reward
Epinephrine
the neurotransmitter responsible for adrenaline rushes, bursts of energy caused by its release throughout the body
Frontal lobes
the region at the front of the cerebral cortex concerned with planning and movement
GABA
the primary inhibitory transmitter in the nervous system
Gene
the unit of heredity that determines a particular characteristic in an organism
Genotype
the genetic constitution determined at the moment of conception
Glutamate
the primary excitatory transmitter in the nervous system
Gonads
the main endocrine glands involved in sexual behavior
Heritability
a statistical estimate of the variation, caused by differences in heredity, in a trait within a population
Hippocampus
a brain structure important for the formation of certain types of memory
Hormones
chemical substances, typically released from endocrine glands, that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues, which are subsequently influenced by the hormones
Hypothalamus
a small brain structure that is vital for temperature regulation, emotion, sexual behavior, and motivation
Interneurons
one of the three types of neurons, these neurons communicate only with other neurons, typically within a specific brain region
Monozygotic twins
twin siblings who result from one zygote splitting in two and therefore share the same genes
Motor neurons
one of the three types of neurons, these efferent neurons direct muscles to contract or relax, thereby producing movement
Myelin sheath
a fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates the axon and allows for the rapid movement of electrical impulses along the axon
Neuron
the basic unit of the nervous system; it operates through electrical impulses, which communicate with other neurons through chemical signals; they receive, integrate, and transmit info in the nervous sys.
Neurotransmitter
a chemical substance that carries signals from one neuron to another
Nodes of Ranvier
small gaps of exposed axon, between the segments of myelin sheath, where action potentials are transmitted
Norepinephrine
the neurotransmitter involved in states of arousal and awareness
Occipital lobe
a region of the cerebral cortex, at the back of the brain, important for vision
Parasympathetic division of ANS
a division of the ANS; it returns the body to resting state
Parietal lobe
a region of the cerebral cortex, in front of the occipital lobes and behind the frontal lobes, important for the sense of touch and of the spatial layout of an environment
Parkinson’s disease
a neurological disorder that seems to be caused by dopamine depletion, marked by muscular rigidity, tremors, and difficulty initiating voluntary action
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
all nerve cells in the body that are not part of the CNS; somatic and autonomic
Phenotype
observable physical characteristics that result from both genetic and environmental influences
Pituitary gland
located at the base of the hypothalamus; the gland that sends hormonal signals controlling the release of hormones from endocrine glands
Plasticity
a property of the brain that allows it to change as a result of experience, drugs, or injury
Prefrontal cortex
a region of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans, important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality
Receptors
in neurons, specialized protein molecules, on the postsynaptic membrane, that neurotransmitters bind to after passing across the synaptic cleft
Recessive gene
a gene that is expressed only when it is matched with a similar gene from the other parent
Resting membrane potential
the electrical charge of a neuron when it is inactive
Reuptake
the process whereby a neurotrasmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons, thereby stopping its activity
Sensory neurons
one of the three types of neurons, these afferent neurons detect information from the physical world and pass that info along to the brain
Serotonin
a monoamine neurotransmitter important for a wide range of psychological activity, including emotional states, impulse control, and dreaming
Somatic nervous system
a major component of the peripheral nervous system; transmits sensory signals to the CNS via nerves
Substance P
a neurotransmitter involved in pain reception
Sympathetic division of ANS
a division of the ANS; prepares the body for action
Synapse, or synaptic cleft
the site for chemical communication between neurons, which contains extracellular fluid
Synethesia
neurological condition in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway
Temporal lobes
the lower region of the cerebral cortex, important for processing auditory info and memory
Terminal buttons
small nodules, at the ends of axons, that release chemical signals from the neuron to the synapse
Thalamus
the gateway to the brain; it receives almost all incoming sensory info before that info reaches the cortex
physical characteristics, skills, and abilities
Adaptations
wide variety of actions that occur in al organisms
Behavior
a psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing behavior
Behaviorism
the study of the neural mechanisms that underlie thought, learning, and memory
Cognitive neuroscience
the study of how people think, learn, and remember
Cognitive psychology
a systematic way of evaluating info to reach reasonable conclusions
Critical thinking
the beliefs, values, rules, norms, and customs existing within a group of people who share a common language and environment
Culture
organisms change over time due to the inheritance of favorable genetic adaptations which are then passed to offspring
Evolutionary theory
theory that mind came into existence over the course of human evolution and works as it does to help humans adapt to environmental demands
Functionalism
the whole of personal experience is different from the sum of its parts, proposed by Wertheimer and Kohler
Gestalt theory
a systematic examination of subjective mental experiences that requires people to inspect and report on the content of their thoughts; first used by Wundt
Introspection
mental activity, result of neurons and associated chemical reactions (senses, memories, thoughts, feelings)
Mind
Are the mind and body separate and distinct, or is the mind simply the physical brain’s subjective experience?
Mind/body problem
the process by which organisms’ random mutations that are adaptive are passed along and random mutations that hinder survival are not
Natural selection
influence each other in shaping brain, mind, and behavior
Nature/nurture debate
a method developed by Freud that attempts to bring the contents of the unconscious to conscious awareness so that conflicts can be revealed
Psychoanalysis
the study of mind, brain, and behavior
Psychological science
the study of group dynamics in relation to psychological processes
Social psychology
idea that mind consists of an ever-changing, continuous serious of thoughts, proposed by James
Stream of consciousness
school of thought that is based on idea that conscious experience can be studied when broken down into its underlying components, est. by Titchener
Structuralism
the mental processes that operate below the level of conscious awareness
Unconscious
the extent to which an experimental measure is free from error
Accuracy
a range of experimental techniques that make brain structures and brain activity visible
Brain imaging
special type of observational/descriptive study that involves intensive examination of one person or a few individuals (clinical case studies) or one or a few organizations (organizational case studies)
Case study
a measure that represents the typical behavior of the group as a whole
Central tendency
anything that affects a dependent variable and may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of a study
Confound
the participants in the study that receive no intervention or n intervention different from the one being studied
Control group
a research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them
Correlational study
research deign that compares different groups of make inferences about both
Cross-sectional studies
studies that take into account the ways culture affects thoughts, feelings, and actions
Culturally sensitive research
objective observations or measurements
Data
in an experiment, the measure that is affected by manipulation of the independent variable
Dependent variable
overall summary of data
Descriptive statistics
involve observing and noting behavior to analyze it objectively
Descriptive studies
when researchers find a relationship between two variables in the correlational study, they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable
Directionality problem
a device that measures electrical activity in the brain
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
a study that tests causal hypotheses by measuring and manipulating variables
Experiment
the participants in a study that receive the intervention
Experimental group
actual change in the behavior of the people or animals being observed that is due to observer bias
Experimenter expectancy effect
an imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
a specific prediction of what should be observed in the world if a theory is correct
Hypothesis
in an experiment, the condition that is manipulated by the experimenter to examine its impact on the dependent variable
Independent variable
Mathematical methods that employ probability theory for deducing (inferring) the properties of a population from the analysis of the properties of a data sample drawn from it. It is concerned also with the precision and reliability of the inferences it helps to draw.
Inferential statistics
groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and provides for the physical and emotional well-being of research participants
Institutional review boards (ERBs)
involve observing and classifying developmental changes that occur in the same people over time
Longitudinal studies
a method of brain imaging that produces high-quality images of the brain
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
a measure of central tendency that is the arithmetic average of a set of numbers
Mean
a measure of central tendency that is the value in a set of numbers that falls exactly halfway between the lowest and highest values
Median
a “study of studies” that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion
Meta-analysis
a measure of central tendency that is the most frequent score or value in a set
Mode
a passive descriptive study in which observers do not change or alter ongoing behavior
Naturalistic observation
a research method of careful and systematic assessment and coding of overt behavior
Observational technique
systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer’s expectations
Observer bias
a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is actively involved in the situation
Participant observation
everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in
Population
a method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream
Positron emission tomography (PET)
the procedure for placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable
Random assignment
when the knowledge that one is being observed alters the behavior being observed
Reactivity
the extent to which a measure is stable and consistent over time in similar conditions
Reliability
repetition of an experiment to confirm the results
Replication
scientific process that involves the systematic and careful collection of data
Research
a research method in which researchers quantify perceptual or cognitive processes in response to a specific stimulus
Response performance
a subset of a population
Sample
graph that illustrates the relationship between two variables
Scatterplot
a systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena to answer questions about what happens, when it happens, what causes it, and why
Scientific method
when participants in different groups in an experiment differ systematically
Selection bias
a method of data collection in which people are asked to provide information about themselves, such as in questionnaires or surveys
Self-report method
a statistical measure of how far away each value is, on average, from the mean
Standard deviation
a model of interconnected ideas and concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events
Theory
when the experimenter cannot directly manipulate the independent variable and therefore cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the dependent variable
Third variable problem
the use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain regions
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
the extent to which the data collected addresses the research hypothesis in the way intended
Validity
in a set of numbers, how widely dispersed the values are from each other and from the mean
Variability
something in the world that can be measured and that can vary
Variable
the neurotransmitter responsible for motor control at the junction between nerves and muscles; also involved in mental processes such as learning, memory, sleeping, and dreaming
Acetylcholine (Ach)
the neural impulse that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons
Action potential
any drug that enhances the actions of a specific neurotransmitter
Agonists
the principle whereby a neuron fires with the same potency each time, although frequency can vary; it either fires or not
All-or-none principle
a brain structure that serves a vital role in our learning to associate things with emotional responses and in processing emotional information
Amygdala
any drug that inhibits the action of a specific neurotransmitter
Antagonists
a major component of PNS; regulates body’s internal environ. by stimulating glands and maintaining internal organs
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
a long narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which info is transmitted to other neurons
Axon
a system of subcortical structures that are important for the initiation of planned movement
Basal ganglia
a section of the bottom of the brain, housing the most basic programs of survival, such as breathing, swallowing, vomiting, urination, and orgasm
Brainstem
the left frontal region of the brain, crucial for the production of language
Broca’s area
in the neuron, where info from thousands of other neurons is collected and processed
Cell body
the brain and spinal cord
Central nervous system (CNS)
a large, convoluted protuberance at the back of the brainstem, essential for coordinated movement and balance
Cerebellum
the outer layer of brain tissue, which forms the convoluted surface of the brain
Cerebral cortex
structures within the cell body that are made up of genes
Chromosomes
branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect information from other neurons
Dentrites
twin siblings who result from two separately fertilized eggs
Dizygotic twins
a gene that is expressed in the offspring whenever it is present
Dominant gene
a monoamine neurotransmitter involved in reward, motivation, and motor control
Dopamine
a communication system that uses hormones to influence thoughts, behaviors, and actions
Endocrine system
a neurotransmitter involved in natural pain reduction and reward
Endorphins
the neurotransmitter responsible for adrenaline rushes, bursts of energy caused by its release throughout the body
Epinephrine
the region at the front of the cerebral cortex concerned with planning and movement
Frontal lobes
the primary inhibitory transmitter in the nervous system
GABA
the unit of heredity that determines a particular characteristic in an organism
Gene
the genetic constitution determined at the moment of conception
Genotype
the primary excitatory transmitter in the nervous system
Glutamate
the main endocrine glands involved in sexual behavior
Gonads
a statistical estimate of the variation, caused by differences in heredity, in a trait within a population
Heritability
a brain structure important for the formation of certain types of memory
Hippocampus
chemical substances, typically released from endocrine glands, that travel through the bloodstream to targeted tissues, which are subsequently influenced by the hormones
Hormones
a small brain structure that is vital for temperature regulation, emotion, sexual behavior, and motivation
Hypothalamus
one of the three types of neurons, these neurons communicate only with other neurons, typically within a specific brain region
Interneurons
twin siblings who result from one zygote splitting in two and therefore share the same genes
Monozygotic twins
one of the three types of neurons, these efferent neurons direct muscles to contract or relax, thereby producing movement
Motor neurons
a fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates the axon and allows for the rapid movement of electrical impulses along the axon
Myelin sheath
the basic unit of the nervous system; it operates through electrical impulses, which communicate with other neurons through chemical signals; they receive, integrate, and transmit info in the nervous sys.
Neuron
a chemical substance that carries signals from one neuron to another
Neurotransmitter
small gaps of exposed axon, between the segments of myelin sheath, where action potentials are transmitted
Nodes of Ranvier
the neurotransmitter involved in states of arousal and awareness
Norepinephrine
a region of the cerebral cortex, at the back of the brain, important for vision
Occipital lobe
a division of the ANS; it returns the body to resting state
Parasympathetic division of ANS
a region of the cerebral cortex, in front of the occipital lobes and behind the frontal lobes, important for the sense of touch and of the spatial layout of an environment
Parietal lobe
a neurological disorder that seems to be caused by dopamine depletion, marked by muscular rigidity, tremors, and difficulty initiating voluntary action
Parkinson’s disease
all nerve cells in the body that are not part of the CNS; somatic and autonomic
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
observable physical characteristics that result from both genetic and environmental influences
Phenotype
located at the base of the hypothalamus; the gland that sends hormonal signals controlling the release of hormones from endocrine glands
Pituitary gland
a property of the brain that allows it to change as a result of experience, drugs, or injury
Plasticity
a region of the frontal lobes, especially prominent in humans, important for attention, working memory, decision making, appropriate social behavior, and personality
Prefrontal cortex
in neurons, specialized protein molecules, on the postsynaptic membrane, that neurotransmitters bind to after passing across the synaptic cleft
Receptors
a gene that is expressed only when it is matched with a similar gene from the other parent
Recessive gene
the electrical charge of a neuron when it is inactive
Resting membrane potential
the process whereby a neurotrasmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons, thereby stopping its activity
Reuptake
one of the three types of neurons, these afferent neurons detect information from the physical world and pass that info along to the brain
Sensory neurons
a monoamine neurotransmitter important for a wide range of psychological activity, including emotional states, impulse control, and dreaming
Serotonin
a major component of the peripheral nervous system; transmits sensory signals to the CNS via nerves
Somatic nervous system
a neurotransmitter involved in pain reception
Substance P
a division of the ANS; prepares the body for action
Sympathetic division of ANS
the site for chemical communication between neurons, which contains extracellular fluid
Synapse, or synaptic cleft
neurological condition in which stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to automatic, involuntary experiences in a second sensory or cognitive pathway
Synethesia
the lower region of the cerebral cortex, important for processing auditory info and memory
Temporal lobes
small nodules, at the ends of axons, that release chemical signals from the neuron to the synapse
Terminal buttons
the gateway to the brain; it receives almost all incoming sensory info before that info reaches the cortex
Thalamus
