Glucagon, insulin, and glucose (pancreas as endocrine organ and T2DM)

Question 1

glucagon secretion is stimulated by

Answer 1

low blood glucose levels
amino acids
epinephrine

Question 2

glucagon prevents hypoglycemia after

Answer 2

protein meal
ketogenic diet

Question 3

glucagon secretion is inhibited by

Answer 3

GLP-1
Glucose

Question 4

where do catabolic effects of glucagon mainly occur

Answer 4

liver

Question 5

catabolic effects of glucagon

Answer 5

glycogenolysis
gluconeogenesis
TAG oxidation

Question 6

function of TAG oxidation

Answer 6

created ADP for mitochondrial function

Question 7

partial TAG oxidation occurs when energy levels of mitrochondria are met leading to

Answer 7

keto acid production

Question 8

function of keto acids

Answer 8

they are exported and used by other tissues for fuel –> allows brain to continue to function during times of fasting

Question 9

when do we have extra hepatic effects of glucagon

Answer 9

high levels of glucagon

Question 10

extra hepatic effects of glucagon

Answer 10

lipolysis
proteolysis

Question 11

what glucose transporter is on hepatocytes

Answer 11

GLUT2 (independent)

Question 12

insulin effects on hepatocytes

Answer 12

decreases gluconeogeneis and glycogenolysis
increases glycogen synthesis
increases fatty acid synthesis

Question 13

how do we have increased glycogen synthesis in hepatocytes with insulin

Answer 13

via activation of glucokinase and glycogen synthase

Question 14

increased fatty acid synthesis in hepatocytes in response to insulin promotes

Answer 14

promotes TAG formation –> stored as lipid droplets in liver
OR
TAGS –> exported as VLDL –> take up by adipose or muscle –> stored for oxidation later during times of energy need

Question 15

what glucose transporter receptor is on adiocytes and skeletal muscle

Answer 15

GLUT4 (dependent)

Question 16

function of insulin on adipocytes

Answer 16

increased translocation of GLUT4 to plasma membrane
Promotes glucose breakdown –> metabolites use to synthesize TAGs

Question 17

function of insulin on skeletal muscle

Answer 17

increased translocation of GLUT4 to plasma membrane
Enhances conversion of glucose to glycogen
increases glycolysis and oxidation —> energy creation
Stimulates protein synthesis and decreases degradation

Question 18

Overall effects of insulin

Answer 18

promotes glucose in plasma to be utilized as energy or stored as energy (glycogen and fatty acids)
Decreases oxidation and utilization of existing energy stores

Question 19

what is responsible for the first step of glucose metabolism for several pathways by generating G-6-P

Answer 19

hexokinase and glucokinase

Question 20

Glucose metabolism: Anabolic

Answer 20

G6P –> glycogen (energy storage)

Question 21

Glucose metabolism: Catabolic

Answer 21

G6P –> pyruvate (energy utilization)

OR

G6P –> ribose-5-phosphate –> pentose –> phosphate pathway

Question 22

what is the precursor for nucleotides

Answer 22

ribose-5-phosphate