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Global Politics Flashcards

1
Q

Define global governance
and security dilemma

A
  • Global governance; states have the most authority in global politics + represent their own national interests. Dalton used the Billiard Ball Model to show how states impact the other but their own self-interest takes precedence’s over IGOs
  • Security dilemma; as one states defences build up others respond increasing tensions between the two states. China’s expansion into territorial waters in South China sea has led to the US patrolling nearby ‘international’ waters
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2
Q

Define realism and liberalism

A
  • Realism (right-wing); Bull argues nation-states are sovereign and global politics is anarchical although there is society of states despite the disorder. Believe the authority of IGOs should be limited as the nation-states should be sovereign to advance their self-interest
  • Liberalism (left-wing); State’s interests are interdependent + best advanced through working together + non-state acotes e.g. IGOs. States are committed to individual liberty so a liberal world view can be adopted with international cooperation
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3
Q

Define anarchical society and international anarchy

A
  • Anarchical society; attempts to bring government structures together to deal with common interests. E.g. Taking military action through a UNSC Resolution
  • International Anarchy; states are self-contained units which frequently clash where there is no authority as as legitmate or powerful as the nation-state. US-led + UK-backed invasion of Iraq shows the disorder of global politics without a clear UNSC Resolution
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4
Q

Define society of states and complex interdependence

A
  • Society of states; a system in which states attempt to establish order by forming alliances and creating international insitituions + laws - e.g EU
  • Complex interdependence; states + their forutnes are inextricably linked. Cobweb Model highlights the links between many states + how the cobwebs may disintergrate if one strand (state) breaks
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5
Q

Explain the powers of global ‘governments’

A
  1. Summits + IGOs can offer states means of resolving disputes + chances to work together e.g. G7, G20, UN, EU, COP
  2. No single world government with a clear mandate - states are the most powerful actors + cannot be forced to do anything against their will
  3. IGOs have varying degrees of authority + legitmacy so states can choose which ones to join
    4.International law is codified but only applies to states which have agreed these laws through treaties
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6
Q

Explain how nation states have primacy over the EU and UN

A
  • EU; 2016 Brexit vote meant the UK was the first member to leave the EU giving them a weaker global presence + links to the US. Members like Hungary are deeply critical + more Euroscptic parties are being elected across the EU
  • UN; every member state (193) has one vote - for the Security Council, Economic + Social Council + budgetary decisions require a 2/3 majority but other votes only need a majority. Members often also abstain meaning no action can be taken e.g UK on Palestine
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7
Q

Explain how nation-states have primacy over the G7 and Paris Climate Change Conference

A
  • G7; G7 has no formal rules which means control over members which ensures like-minded values + achieves more than organisations like the G20 e.g. US $50 billion loan to Ukraine agreed recently
  • Paris Climate Change Conference; 157parties have committed to greenhouse gas emissions reduction but only 57 have quantified such targets into domestic policies + only 17 (+EU) look beyond targets for 2030
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8
Q

Define the IGOs; UN, IMF, WTO + World Bank

A
  • UN; Established in 1945 after WW2 to prevent another conflict has 193 members currently
  • IMF; Provides loans to countries for capital projects + comprises of International Bank for Reconstruction + Development and International Development Association
  • WTO; Organisation that regulates international trade - 166 members
  • World Bank; 189 countries working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability + reduce poverty
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9
Q

Define the regional bodies; EU, NAFTA + ASEAN

A
  • EU; political + economic union of 27 member states, population of over 150 million
  • North American Free Trade Agreement; agreement signed by Canada, Mexico + the US created a trilateral trade bloc in 1994
  • Association of South-East Asian Nations; organisarion that promotes intergovermental cooperation around economic, political, military, educational intergration among its members
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10
Q

Define the NGOs; Oxfam + Human Rights Watch

A
  • Oxfam; confederation of 20 independant charitable organisations focusing on alleviating poverty, founded in 1942 + led by Oxfam International
  • Humans Rights Watch; international organisation that conducts research + advocacy on human rights
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11
Q

Define unipolarity, mulitpolarity, bipolarity with the advantages and disadvantages of both

A
  • Unipolarity; a distribution of power in which one state eexercises most of the influence
    e.g rise of US hegemony

Adavantages: US provided a sense world peace - spread ideas of free trade + democracy

Disadvantages: Highly unstable emerging states resent the one hegemonic state

  • Multipolarity; more than two-states have nearly equal amounts of influence
    e.g increase in power of BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India +China)

Advantages: Liberals argue the lack of existance of a single world power means states are more likely to cooperate with global goverance

Disadvantages: Neorealists argue that chance of misjuding the intentions of other states + increases the chances of war due to external balancing

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12
Q

Define bipolarity and balance of power with the advantages and disadvantages of both

A
  • Bipolarity; a system where world order in which the majority of global economic, military + cultural influence is held between two states
    e.g Cold War- US + USSR vying for power

Advantages: promote peace as neither side was capable of eliminating the other

Disadvantages: Destabling + dangerous as it almost led to the possibility of MAD

  • Balance of power; national security is enhanced when militant capability is distributed so that no one state is strong enough to dominate the other
    e.g Nuclear proliferation + fear of MAD led to uneasy balances of power

Advantages: countries increase their own defence systems (Realist POV)

Disadvantages: Mearsheimer argues it’s an unstable distribution of power as it’s constantly shifting

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13
Q

Explain the key beliefs/theories of realism

A
  • Structural realism = nation-states seek to advance their own interests at the expanse of other nation states
  • Nation-states don’t allow supranational authority greater than themselves as global relations are archaic are as no ‘body’ enforces international law
  • States shouldn’t have to meet humanitarian aims - destablises international relations
  • Negative interpretations of human nature views humans as selfish + egotistical
  • e.g Trans-Pacific Partnership (IGO) was unable to exist which aimed to lower tarrifs didn’t exist due to US withdrawal in 2017
  • e.g EU raised import taxes on Britain after the left the IGO
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14
Q

Explain the key practical policies of realism

A
  • Defend internal security through well defended borders + laws
  • States know the limit of soft power but use a combination of soft + hard power = smart power
  • In international anarchy threats + force are important
  • In the global system where there isn’t a no guarantee that other states or IGOs will help them
  • Human nature cannot be changed
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15
Q

Explain the practical policies of liberalism

A
  • Human nature isn’t fixed so states can improve
  • Efforts should be made to prevent + reduce conflicts which are avoidable through IGOs e.g UN
  • Military powers can be counterproductive
  • States should be committed to individual liberty e.g human rights
  • Power should be shared equally as it leads to stability through things like economic cooperation reducing chances of conflict
  • Possible to impose order on humans in a rule-based system of international law e.g 2012 EU won Nobel Peace Prize
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16
Q

Explain the views of Waltz, Bull, Morgenthau and Mearsheimer - realist thinkers

A

Waltz - favours bipolarity over multipolarity as it lead to easier negotiations + that states live in a self help system where they build up their own security apparatus through military power

Bull - identified anarchical society in global politics + a society of states emerged to promote common interests + states compete with the other

Morgenthau - argues people are selfish + try to dominate so moral considerations are less important than national interests + states defend their own national intests against perceived threats

Mearsheimer - explained that conflict + competition for power continues + secure hegemony + all states find ways to increase power

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17
Q

Explain the relationship between IGOs and states

A
  • IGOs only exist because they have been created by states who retain the ultimate power e.g Britain leaving the EU, African states leaving the ICC in protest at bias against them
  • Failure of UNSC to agree to a resolution on Israeli-Palestinian ceasefire due to US vetos shows IGOs are dependant on member states
  • States retain the power to act unilaterally e.g UK air strikes on the Houthis - isolationism
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18
Q

Explain Russia’s position with NATO and events which have strained the relationship

A
  1. Russia supported Assad’s regime in Syria with air strike in 2015
  2. Russia began to increase its military influences in response to the expansion of NATO e.g annexation of Crimea in 2014
  3. Russian National Security Strategy declared that NATOs build up forces in countries bordering it which wasn’t consistent in international law
  4. Trump called for all NATO member states to pay the fair share of contribution - 2% of GDP + called NATO ‘obsolete’
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19
Q

Explain the realist theory; Billard Ball Model

A
  • Billard Ball Model is under pressure due to complex interdependance of interconnected states
  • Push factors seperate nation-states such as scare resources, war
  • Pull factors bring sovereign states together such as trade agreements
  • Every billard ball is sovereign so protected from IGOs
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20
Q

Explain an example of global anarchy between states

A
  • In the South China Sea (contains oil + gas) - China has attempted to expand its territorial waters by increasing patrols + building islands
  • US has responded through Freedom of Navigation Patrols in ‘international waters’ - in 2013 the UN tribunal ruled that China wasn’t complying with the UN Convention on the Laws of the Sea
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21
Q

Explain the views of Keohane, Fukuyama and Ohmae - liberal thinkers

A

Keohane - challenges ideas that states reject international cooperation + that international law can achieve shared solutions. Democracy plays a key role in preventing conflict+ international trade binds states together as they are more interdependant

Fukuyama - liberal democracy since the end of the Cold War have become the undisputed form of human government + argues its the ‘endpoint of mankind’s ideological development’. International law is possible to hold all states to account e.g Universal Declaration of Human Rights + reject the zero-sum game

Ohmae - globalisation brought a shift in society + states are losing their economic power + aren’t the main participants in the global economy. NGOs + IGOs help states become aware of different viewpoints + policies

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22
Q

Explain key examples of liberal beliefs on IGOs and how they restrict conflict

A
  • WTO has fostered trade through greater transparency among trading nations + an increase in developed countries investing in developing economies
  • Political decisions are more globalised e.g Ebola crisis 2015 + Cornovirus pandemic 2020 - Interpol faciliating international police co-operation + Paris Climate Agreemet to tackle climate change
  • Turkey has been denied membership to the EU because they fail to meet the requirments - democratic states offer a more stable base to society as they offer a framework for trade, transparency etc
  • Democracy restricts conflicts as leaders are responsible to their electorates + people feel unpopular about war + often need permission from their legislature to engage in military action e.g 2013 when Parliament voted military action against Assad’s regime in Syria
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23
Q

Explain how the global financial crisis shows the role of complex interdependance between countries

A
  • 2008-09 global financial crisis collapsed the sub-prime mortgage market in the US which led to a lack of confidence in the banking system which spread across the world
  • Slowed global economic growth , rose unemployment
  • In the Eurozone countries such as Ireland + Greece were unable to borrow from international markets - needed the European Central Bank to bail them out
  • Led to many strict austerity measures in domestic politics - led to IMF agreeing a financial stimulus to inject funds into the international banking system
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24
Q

Give examples of Obama’s liberalist policies/actions

A
  1. Ended wars in Iraq + Afghanistan without a decisive victory
  2. US air strikes in Libya to prevent humanitarian crisis when Gaddafi threatened to kill rebel civillians with UNSC approval + Arab League support
  3. Struck a deal with Iran lifting economic sanctions in exchange for them stopping their nuclear weapon buildings programme
  4. During the 2010-12 Arab Uprisings they sided with the protestors which was a turn from previous US leaders who were allies of Mubarak in Egypt
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25
Q

Give examples of Obama’s realist policies/actions

A
  1. Obama increased the use of drone strikes over boots on the ground for al-Qaeda targets which were highly effective (between Pakestian + Afghanistan)

2.Failed to react with military intervention when Assad used chemical weapons in Syria - struck a deal with Russia to disarm Assad of chemical weapons

  1. Obama failed to close the terrorist detention centre at Guantanamo Bay where terrorists are often tortured + held without trial
  2. Obama didn’t uphold international law when Russia annexed Crimea in 2014
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26
Q

Explain Fukuyama’s key arguments on the Clash of Civilisation and criticisms of them

A
  • Collapse of the USSR is proof that liberal democracies will become dominat
  • Fukuyama argues that liberal democracy will lead to global stability due to the mutal interdependance of states with shared values
  • National and ethnic conflicts will still occur but large scale ideological war will cease to exist

Critictisms
* Fukuyama claimed that liberal democracies had ended the class problems which have now been expanded by the growing class divide - leading to more people interested in socialism
* Far-right (anti-state) parties are rising across Europe and people are becoming more nihilistic leading to a potential for facism to restart

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27
Q

Explain Huntington’s key arguments on the Clash of Civilisation and criticisms of them

A
  • Argues cultural differences will be the main source of conflict = recurring conflicts
  • International relations will always be based on conlict
  • Nation-states are in conflict post-Cold War caused by rivarly of different civilisations
  • Rivarly between the Western liberal + Islamic civilisations

Criticisms
* Berman argues that distinct cultural boundaries don’t exist due to migration (Islamic extremists study in the West often) - proves the ideologies aren’t completley seperated or in conflict
* Sen argues that diversity is a feature of all cutlures + extreme cultural determinism is unlikely

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28
Q

Give key examples showing that Fukuyama was right about the end of an ideological struggle

A

YES
2. 1. Liberal democracy have increased from 35 in 1974 to 120 in 2013 a rise of 60%
2. Communism was abolished in the USSR and former Soviet states in Eastern Europe joined the EU + have become liberal democracies
3. World economy has grown by 4x
4. Healthy democracies have survived long-term
5. Fundemental Islam is limited to non-state actors such as Al-Qaeda no nation state has adopted it as a form of government

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29
Q

Give key examples showing that Fukuyama was wrong about the end of an ideological struggle

A

NO
1. Russia under Putin is far more authoritarian than a liberal democracy + China has adopted a similar pattern. They are also large challengers of the US
2. Capitalism has created inequalitiese.g 2008 financial crash etc
3. Iran + Saudi Arabia operate under Sharia law opposing liberal democracies
4. Attempted coups in Turkey (2016) + protests collapsing the Bangladash government (2024) highlighting the fragility of democracy
5. Liberal democracies have weaknesses e.g in India 1/3 of elected candidates had criminal indictments in 2014

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30
Q

Give key examples showing that Huntington was right about the clash of civilisation

A

YES
* 9/11 attack on the World Trade Centre are evidence of a clash between the West and Islam
* The Islamic civilisation is divdied between Shia and Sunni sectsreflected in the Shia war; Shia Iran + Sunni Saudi Arabia backed different sides
* Global terrorism has increased with ISIS, Boko Haram all emerge to challenge Western values
* The rise of China to overtake the US reflects an increase in the power of Sinic civilisation

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31
Q

Give key examples showing that Huntington was wrong about the clash of civilisation

A

NO
* Little evidence in unity in the Islamic world with Iran distancing itself with the US + Saudi Arabia allied with America
* India, Japan + Latin America aren’t very interested in the West and deeply intderdependant so aren’t interested in a clash with the West
* Large numbers of Muslims in non-Muslims states adhere to Western values
* Russia’s aggression in Georgia + Ukraine highlight the struggles that exist among former Soviet states - according to Huntington share a similar civilisation when there’s clearly tension between them

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32
Q

Explain what the Washington Consensus is and an example of it in practice

A
  • Belief in the primacy of the free markets + capitalist enterprise
  • Forces states to adopt low regulation + reduce corporation tax to attract investment
  • e.g Vietnam attracted investment by reducing corporation tax by 20%
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33
Q

Explain what the Bretton Woods Institutions are and how they impact globalisation

A
  1. World Bank
  2. International Monetary Fund
  3. World Trade Organisation
  • World Bank + IMF use the structural adjustment programme (SAPs) founded on the belief that economic growth increases through free market reforms
  • To attain IMF funding through SAPs nation states have to follow a specific economic agenda (limiting state sovereignty)
  • WTO encourages states to reduce import tarrifs to faciliate trade
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34
Q

Explain how UN bodies increase global interconnectedness

A
  • UN member-states collaborate together to resolve ‘collective dilemmas’
  • World Health Organisation - tackle epidemics + pandemics e.g Covid-19
  • UN High Commission for Refugges - alleviates the plight of refuges
  • UN International Children’s Fund - globally protect children’s rights e.g vaccination rollout programmes
  • Sustainable Development Goals - increase literacy rates, reduce infant mortality etc
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35
Q

Explain the work of Amnesty International, Greenpeace, Human Rights Watch and Oxfam and use examples

A
  1. Amnesty International
    * Influenced the EU to provide €30 million to the EU Human Rights Defenders Mechanism
    * Influenced US states Illinois + Michigan to enforce new gun safety laws e.g universal background checks
  2. Greenpeace
    * Worked with the UN to implement the Global Ocean Treaty all member states agreed to work to protect + conserve large areas of the ocean
  3. Human Rights Watch
    * International Campaign to Ban Land Mines in 1997
  4. Oxfam
    * Use funding to help provide essential items, rebuild infrastructure and protect women + girls who are the most vunerable in the aftermath of the severe flooding in Bangladesh 2024
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36
Q

Explain how the EU, NAFTA, ASEAN + Mercosur encourgae globalisation regionally

A
  • EU - promotes free trade through their internal free market with no border checks
  • NAFTA - elimnates tarrifs on imports + exports between the 3 countries
  • ASEAN - free trade agreements - helped negotiate the RCEP (world’s largest free trade agreement - cohesive response to Myanmar’s military takeover + China’s claims in the South China sea)
  • Mercosur - free trade agreements with bodies outside of Mercosur e.g an EU-Mercosur agreement
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37
Q

Explain how the internet and technology has impacted globalisation

A
  • Instantaneous trading of shares + capital has created a global marketplace
  • TNCs have spread e.g McDonalds have franchies in 120 countries
  • News networks have become global corporations e.g CNN, Sky News + social media has led to the spread of information e.g in the 2012 Arab Uprisings Al Jazeera played a role in provking the riots by undermining states abilities to control the flow of info the their people + in Bangladesh in 2024 they cut off Meta servies to stop people being able to coordinate riots
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38
Q

Explain using two examples to show the globalisation of markets

A
  1. In 1997 a flight of global capital from Thailand which threatened the propserity of the South-Eastern Asian region
  2. In 2008 when the mortgage crisis hit the US it let to a global crash in the markets as people lost confidence in the US markets
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39
Q

Explain the idea of the Peace of Westphaila and why it was significant

A

Peace of Westphaila (1684)
* Created the concepts of state sovereignty, mediation between nations + diplomacy
* Codified into an international set of laws providing the basis for international communities e.g EU + UN
* Laid out the idea that nation-states couldn’t interfere with other nation states

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40
Q

Explain the idea of the Congress of Vienna and why it was significant

A

Congress of Vienna
* Brought about a balance of power in Europe + prevent further conflict
* Dissolved the Napoleonic world + attempted to restore the monarchies Napoleon had overthrown
* First occasion where countries representatives came together to formulate treaties

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41
Q

Explain the idea of the Creation of the UN and why it was significant

A

Creation of the UN
* Post-WW2 nations wanted to create peace + representatives of 50 countries came together
* Drafted + signed the UN Charter which formally created the UN to ensure global peace

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42
Q

Explain what the terms Wilsoniansim and the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States refers to

A
  • Wilsoniansim = interpreted war as atiavistic associated with imperalism + economic nationalism
  • Montevideo Covention on the Rights + Duties of States = codified the declarative theory of statehood = soveriegnty in international law
  • Roosevet opposed the U.S armed intervention in inter-American affairs - 19 signatories - Brazil, Peru + US signing was subject to minor reservations
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43
Q

Explain internal sovereignty and give examples of it within the UK

A

Internal; location of sovereignty within a state

  • In the UK Westminster Parliament possesses legislative sovereignty
  • The EU referendum suggests that popular sovereignty is more important than legislative sovereignty within the UK as Parliament was unprepared to ignore the vote
  • The Brexit will change the location of sovereignty within the UK
  • The PM exercises sovereignty on behlaf of the monarchy through using royal prerogative
  • Sovereignty is fluid e.g Supreme Court’s ruiling that Parliament and not the government had the sovereign authority to trigger Article 50
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44
Q

Explain external sovereignty and give examples of it within the UK

A

External; all states are equally sovereign in relations with one another

  • The least powerful state is as sovereign as the most powerful + so its territorial intergrity is legally valid
  • According to Westphalian principles one state may disagree with the way another is governed but it doesn’t allow them to interfere in their affairs
  • Article 2 of the UN Charter recognises the fact that all member states have equal sovereignty
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45
Q

Explain the Brandt Report and its key findings

A
  • Economic and social division between the developed Global North and developing Global South
  • Living standards, high wages and industrial productivity most common in the norhten hemisphere
  • Poverty, low wages and agricultural and structural disadvantags most common in the southern hemishpere
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46
Q

Give statistics showing the convergence between the global North and South

A
  • An annual growth in the economy of developing countries 7.6%(rich countries had an annual growth of 4.5%)
  • Global trade increasing from $41 trillion in 2000 to $78 trillion in 2014
  • Convergence in North and South with the number of people in absolute poverty dropping from 1.9 billion in 1980 to 702 million in 2015
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47
Q

Give key examples of the successes of Asian countries economically

A

Vietnam: specialises in low-cost manufactering labour costs 50%
* Focus on low corporation tax + tax relief on foreign companies sending dividends back to their country

Taiwan: Focus on exports annually of $350 billion
* High price consumer goods

South Korea: 5th largest global exporter in cars, computers and wireless telecommunications
* 17X higher output than North Korea

China: 500 million people left poverty since 1980 - enormus supply of cheap labour to manufacture low-cost goods which sells globally
* In 2017 exports from China were $2.2 trillion

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48
Q

Give examples of the key resources of African countries

A
  • Botswana - diamonds = 90% of exports
  • Cote d’Ivoire - cocoa beans and butter = over 50% of exports
  • Ethiopia - coffee = 24% of exports
  • Ghana - gold + precious metals = 35% of exports
  • Kenya - tea, coffee + spices = 27% of exports
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49
Q

Explain the Gini coefficient with examples

A
  • Gini coefficient measures inequality - higher the score = higher inquality
  • US = .41 and China = .42 (in China the poorest 25% own only 1% of the wealth and the richest 1% own over 30% of the nation’s wealth)
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50
Q

Explain the critiques of economic globalisation by Prahalad, Stiglitz and Chua have

A
  • CK Prahalad = ‘economic pyramid’ where the gap between the poor + wealthy has grown
  • Stiglitz arges that the increasing inequality impedes economic growth as economic trade liberalism favours low spending on key public servcies
  • Chua argues that the concentration of wealth creates resentment and dissatisfaction undermining social cohesion and encourages destablising political movements
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51
Q

CK

Explain the ways economic globalisation has entrenched poverty

A
  1. In Bangladesh the Rana Plaza garment factory (where brands like Primark + Mango source cloth) has reported the death of 1,129 employees
  2. Human Rights Watch found that Chinese mining firms in Africa have high levels of human rights abuse
  3. Globalisation has led to a ‘race to the bottom’ in countries cutting corners to attract business and growth
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52
Q

Explain how economic globalisation has led to cultural and enivronmental destruction

A

Cultural/Environmental Destruction

  1. Criticisms of TNC’s abusing the environment e.g Shell has degradation of the Niger Delta the UN estimates that TNCs caused $2.2 billion worth of environmental damage
  2. TNCs withdraw their factories from countries with rising labour costs such as China to African countries or Vietnam
  3. TNCs lead to lower labour costs and the destruction of local industires such as rice in Ghana + ground nuts in Sierra Leone = crime + destroyes local cultures
  4. Materalism has undermined cultural observances e.g proletarianization in China has led to high numbers of suicides from disaffected youths at Focxconn factories
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53
Q

Explain how economic globalisation has led to a democratic deficit

A

Democratic Deficit

  1. Too much power is given to IGOs e.g IMF, WTO who are lacking democratic accountability - policies often harm the poorest and marginalised
  2. Regional bodies e.g EU lack deomcratic accountability e.g the Trans-Atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership will lower consumer and worker standards - no democratic means to oppose this
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54
Q

Explain how economic globalisation has impacted job security

A

Job security

  1. Many voters in the EU referndum argued that the free flow of goods and labour undermined their job prospects + placed pressure on public services due to mass immigration
  2. According to the Prebischer-SInger hypothesis exporting the products fueling economic globalisation means developing countries face declining trade
    * Ha-Joon Chang argues developing countries need tariffs and subsidies against foregin imports till they can withstand foreign competition to protect their industries
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55
Q

Explain how economic globalisation using World Systems theory

A

World Systems Theory

  1. World systems theory - neo-colonialism as developing countires are condemned to a peripheral status in global trade - developing countries provide markets + workforced for TNCs without developing their business interests
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56
Q

Explain examples of how international law has advanced and not advanced conflicts

A
  • International community failed to prevent conflict in Afghanistan in the wake of the US invasion following the 9/11 terrorist attack
  • In 2016 Russia asserted the primacy of its domestic law over the ECHR. Turkey suspended membership in the aftermath of the failed military coup in 2016 when many condemned President Erdogan’s brutal suppression of opposition
  • Failings of the international community to prevent conflict - 2003 when a UNSC failed to prevent the joint US-UK led invasion of Iraq. 500,000 may have died = rise of militant Islamism
  • 1991, during the first Gulf War, the UN condemned Saddam Hussein’s retribution against Shia + Kurdish rebels. Led to France, the UK + USA establishing no-fly zones within Iraqi airspace to protect Hussein’s opponents
  • Liberal hopes that the UN would emerge as the global arbiter of peace were premature. Break-up of the former Yugoslav Federation in 1991 plunged the Balkans into a brutal civil war. The UN and EU intervened, it was not before the loss of tens of thousands of soldiers + civilians
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57
Q

Explain examples of how international law has advanced and not advanced human rights

A
  • 2023 the ECtHR delivered 1498 judgements: 735 against Russia, 30 against Turkey and 319 against Italy + 109 against Romania
  • ECHR lacks the coercive power to ensure states observe its rulings. Failure of the British government to grant prisoners the vote despite ECtHR ruling. May agrued for British Bill of Rights
  • 1993 the UNSC established the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia to deal with war crimes during the Balkans conflict. This led to further war crimes tribunals being established to deal with human rights abuses in Cambodia, Sierra Leone and Rwanda etc
  • 1981, the ECtHR declared that Northern Ireland’s criminalisation of homosexual acts was in contravention of the ECHR. Led to the decriminalisation of male homosexual sex in 1982
  • 2016, Russia withdrew its signature from the Rome Statute when the ICC ruled that its forces had illegally annexed Crimea
  • 1999 the ECtHR ruled that the dismissal of two men from the British military was in breach of their right to a private life. UK recognising the equal rights of gay people to serve in the UK military
  • International community to prevent escalating conflict in the Syrian civil war, with Assad, accused of war crimes against the civilian population using poison gas - Obama failed to act
  • China, Russia + the US refuse to accept the ICC - the US enacted the American Service Member’s Protection Act (2002) stating the US gov will use force to free servicemen if detained by the ICC
  • In 1995 NATO intervented in massacres committed by Bosnian Serbs against Bosinian Muslims
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58
Q

Explain reasons why economic globalisation has reduced poverty

A
  • Developing countries attract investment by engaging in free trade - allows the to industrialise
  • Nation states can use their comparative advantage to allow for expansion
  • Globalisation reduces the cost of imports enabling the world’s poorest to purchase subsitence + consumer goods cheaply
  • TNCs outsource employment to countries with low labour costs = diversification in developing countries that export raw materials
59
Q

Explain reasons why economic globalisation has not reduced poverty

A
  • Produced a ‘race to the bottom’ where governments reduce costs limiting workers rights through commerical violence against workers
  • Proletarianization = disintergration of communities = rise in crme
  • Core states ‘dump’ cheap manufactered products on developing states so they remain in neo-colonial dependancy (Prebisch-Singer hypothesis)
  • Global capitalism is volatile encouraging crises e.g 2008 global financial crash - instability threatens socioeconomic progress
  • Job security is threatenedas business move production to take advantage of lowest-cost environments to produce in
60
Q

Explain the UNDR and its key pinciples

A
  • Universal Decaration of Human Rights - which protect inalienable human rights (30 articles) protect freedoms e.g freedom from discrimination
  • Difficult for the UNDHR to enforce human rights as its a declaration not a hard law = no sanctions for not following it
  • 47 member countries can bring cases to court + ECHR can make ruilings which are legally binding
61
Q

Explain the key institutions of the UN

A
  1. UN General Assembly - UN Parliament, each state is represented by one vote and they debate issues here for 3 months
  2. UN Secretariat - the civil service of the UN
  3. UN Security Council - 5 permanent members (USA,UK,France, Russia + China)
  4. International Court of Justice - makes judgements on territory disputes - not human rights
  5. UN Economic + Social Council - development of human rights + economic development
62
Q

Explain the key functions of the UN General Assembly

A
  • UN body includes representatives from all member countries - each member country has one vote
  • Assembly can issue recommendations but had no power to force countries to act on them
  • On key issues a 2/3 majority is needed to make decisions - only a recommendation
  • No legislative role - elects with UNSC the UN Secretary General + judges of ICJ
  • Annual sessions open with a ‘General Debate’ in which each member country delivers a statement on its perspective on world events
  • Most assembly business is dealt with 6 main committees - GA approves or rejects the recommendations
63
Q

Explain the key functions of the Economic and Social Council of the UN

A
  • 54 members elected by the General Assembly
  • Coordinates economic + social work of UN
  • Oversees large number of programmes - funds + specialised agencies e.g WTO, IMF, World Bank, WHO, UNESCO
  • UN Development Programme has a budget of £5 billion has led thousands of economic development projects
64
Q

Explain the key functions of the WHO

A
  • Aims to increase international cooperation on public health
  • Focused on fighting diseases, controlling epidemics/pandemics + improving all around healthcare
  • Recently focused on antibiotics resistance, bird flu, Covid-19

Successes:
1. Decreased maternal mortality
2. Removal of polio from all but 2 countries
3. Erdication of smallpox

Criticisms:
1. Inadequate response to Ebola
2. Slow response to Covid-19

65
Q

Explain the key functions of the ICJ

A
  • ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the UN - established in June 1945 by the UN Charter

Court Functions:
1. Settle legal disputes between states using international law
2. State participation is voluntary but if states agree to it they must comply with the Court’s decision - 193 countries

  • The court has 15 judges that all serve 9 years - they don’t represent their home country but are independant
  • They don’t automatically hear cases, both sides have to say they will abide by the ruiling
  • e.g In 2004 it ruled the security fence around the West Bank was illegal - Israel ignored it
66
Q

Give examples of where the ICJ has been successful

A
  • 2002 - Nigeria + Cameroon - dispute over who owned an oil rich area
  • Territorial dispute between Costa Rica + Nicaragua over the San Juan River - ICJ ruled in favour of Costa Rica in 2018 - required Nicaragua to compensate for environment damage
  • 2022 - Uganda ordered to pay $325 million in reparations to the DRC for damages caused by violations including human right abuses + illegal exploitation of natural resources
67
Q

Explain why the ICJ is not successful with examples

A
  • Liberal principals conflict with state egotism + sovereignty - states have to agree to recognise the court’s authority
  • ICJ can only listen to cases which are submitted to it - cannot initate cases
  • UNSC is supposed to enforce the ruilings - the P5 nations can veto it which prevents enforcement
  • 2014 - Australia brought a case against Japan who had been killing whales in the antarctic - ICJ ordered them to stop but they have continued
  • 2016 - ICJ ruled in favour of the Philippines in the South China Sea based on the UNCLOS - China refused to recognise the Court’s ruiling + rejected its authority
68
Q

Does the UNSC veto stop the UN from getting things done?

A

YES
* Permanent members are too powerful + can veto anything threatning their national interests e.g there has been no meaningful action from Syria

  • Powerful permanent members can misbehave + veto action against them e.g Russia in Crimea
  • UNSC is powerless to stop countries acting alone e.g US war in Iraq

NO
* UNSC has achieved a lot + passed many resolutions

  • Completed peacekeeping missions around the world (e.g Libya 2011) + imposed sanctions on nations posing a risk to international security
  • Powerful states veto has meant major powers have stayed members of the UN
69
Q

Explain reasons why global governance so controversial

A
  1. Governments remain the most powerful for how IGOs + supranational bodies can operate
  2. Western domiance of the International Fiancial Institutions
  3. Western hegeomonic dominance has allowed the US + allies to accumulate ‘structural’ power in insitutions over the African Union or example
70
Q

Explain the key problems with global governance

A
  1. International laws are largely unforceable - international laws are often optional + require states to sign up to agree to them - states can change their mind + withdraw
  2. Lack of international law enforcement - even when states agree to international law there are few ways of it to be enforced or hold them to account
  3. States are principal actors - individual states make or break global government initatives they choose when to opt out of agreement e.g USA under Trump withdrew from the Paris Climate Accords
71
Q

Explain how different types of states participate in global governance and the power they have

A
  • Rogue States - illegitimate governments exceeding their powers in North Korea - the states have no desire to be part of global government so are not influenced or persuaded by any system of global governance
  • Failed states - states that aren’t fully in control of the internal government such as Somalia or Mali - they are rarely effective participants in global goverance as they have no authority over their own populations e.g groups like the Taliban in Afghanistanor ISIS in Syria often try to take over these failed states
  • Powerful states - states can pick and choose which global agreements they are part of + simply ignore any international pressure e.g Russia’s actions in Ukraine has triggered lots of international pressure but it has been ignored + getting the USA to sign the Kyoto protocol
72
Q

Explain how hyper-globalists/optimists view globalisation

A

Hyper-globalism

  • Local cultures are being eroded because of the expansion of international capitalism + the emergence of a homogenous global culture
  • Friedman argues the global adoption of neoliberal economic policies; provides the business-friendly environment allowing wealth to be generated which should trickle down to everyone
  • Friedman argues countries have the ‘golden straight jacket’ that countries should fit to achieve success; deregulation, fewer protections for workers, privatisation + cutting taxes
  • Neoliberalism has restricted the power of nation-states e.g makes trade easier, free movement of goods, more jobs, cheaper products
73
Q

Explain how globalisation sceptics view globalisation

A

Globalisation Sceptics
* Sceptics argue that globalisation is not a new process but an ongoing form of internationalisation
* They believe the nation state is growing and still the most powerful actors; borders are effective
* Sceptics argue organisations like the UN are built upon nation states acting as the instruments
* Martell argues the future of world politics will be related to nation states and their implementation
* Wallenstein argues that the capitalist world system is constituted by nation states so reject the idea of global governance also citing the rise of anti-globalist movements

74
Q

Explain how Transformationalists view globalisation

A

Transformationalists
* Argue the impact of globaliation has been exaggerated + believe globalisation can be reversed or controlled where it is negative

  • They argue the flow of culture is a two-way exchange in which Western cutlure is also influence from cultures in the developing world and vice-versa
  • Local cultures aren’t simply swallowed up by western cultures in which developing countries select aspects of western culture + adapt them to particular needs a process called glocalisation’
  • They argue it’s created a new class of global consumers which a greater range of choice from which they can construct a hybridised global identity
  • Kassim argues the ‘Arab Spring’ movement succeeded in removing totalitarian dicatators in Tunisa + Egpyt because of the information spread through Facebook to bypass government censorship
  • Giddens argues a consequence of detraditionalisation where people question traditional beliefs about religion, marriage + gender roles making cultures less stable
75
Q

Give examples to show whether Americanisation or Globalisation is more widespread

A

Americanisation:
* The 10 most profitable companies in the world are all US-led e.g Apple, Google, Meta, Amazon, Tesla. Combined they are worth over 2 trillion dollars
* The US is the world’s dominant economy with 25% share of global GDP
* US global troop deployments are unparalleled further extending US interests e.g 130,000 US troops are stationed in the world

Globalisation:
* China has become the biggest global investor in other countries - the establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank to challenge the dominance of the World Bank
* The estbalishment of the African Union + the AfCFTA (free trade region etc) challenges other supranational bodies like the EU

76
Q

Explain arguments for why the UNSC should be reformed

A
  • UNSC’s composition reflect a view that the major powers haven’t changed since 1945 and doesn’t reflect current geopolitical realities e.g Brazil, Germany, Japan + India
  • UNSC’s ability to function depends on alignment across the P5
  • The veto power of the P5 can block actions that go against their national interests e.g Russia vetoing actions on Ukraine
77
Q

Explain arguments for why the UNSC should not reformed

A
  • If more states had the veto power it would increase the likelihood of resoultions being vetoed - the UNSC would be unable to act
  • UNSC was successfully reformed in 1965 when they amount of non-permanent members increased from 6 to 10
  • It would be impossible for new members to agree to the new permanent members as they would be able to veto any prospective new members + it would upset the balance of power in the region

Non-Permanent Members
* African Group: 3 member
* Asia-Pacific Group: 2 members
* Eastern European Group: 1 member
* Latin American and Caribbean Group: 2 members
* Western European and Others Group: 2 members
* One of the five African/Asian seats is an Arab country, alternating between the two groups

78
Q

Explain arguments for options for reforms to the UNSC

A
  • Places like South America or Africa should be given more representation through permanent membership being given to Brazil, South Africa or Nigeria as they’re underrepresented
  • Include new permanent members but limit their powers to not having a veto - reducing the chance of a statlemate
  • Increase the number of non-permanent members or increasing the length of time they sit on the UNSC to increase the influence of emerging powers
79
Q

Explain some of the UN’s work on climate change and the solutions and assessment they have worked on

A

Solutions
* Created the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
* Created the Kyoto Protocol to limit greenhouse gases
* Held the Paris Summit in 2015 + created the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change

Assessment
* The US + Canada aren’t signed up to the Kyoto Protocol prioritising economic development over environmental concerns
* 196 countries agreed at the Paris Summit to limit global warming to below 2 degrees
* The US are likely to withdraw from the Paris Agreement during the next Trump prediency

80
Q

Explain some of the UN’s work on nuclear weapons and the solutions and assessment they have worked on

A

Solutions
* Treaty of the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
* UN General Assesmbly has a dedicated Disarmament Commission
* UN Office for Disarmament Affairs

Assessment
* Five permanent members of the UNSC haved signed NPT
* They agree to not share nuclear technology
* Four UN member states have not signed the treaty including India and Pakistan

81
Q

Explain some of the UN’s work on peace and security and the solutions and assessment they have worked on

A

Solutions
* Chapter 6 of the UN Charter provides for the UN to resolve disputes using peaceful means
* Chapter 7 sets out the powers of the UN to resolve disputes between nation-states and non-state actors using military means

Assessment
* UN-approved military intervention in Somalia, Rwanda + Bosnia in the 1990s
* UN failed to prevent genocidal massacres in Bosina and Rwanda
UK + US launched the Iraq invasion despite not having secured a UNSC resolution

82
Q

Explain the concept of ‘voluntary restraint’ and why G4 members want to be part of the UNSC

A
  • Permammnent members wouldn’t be allowed to use the ‘veto’ power with mass atrocities as a method of restriciting their power
  • G4 (Brazil, Japan, India + Germany) want permanent membership as they believe they are key geopolitical countries
83
Q

Explain what countries on the UNSC use the veto power the most and why

A
  • Russia prevented Syria facing financial sanctions + referring it to the ICC for it’s actions as well as action related to it’s invasion into Ukraine
  • China used it to fail to recogise the state of Taiwan as a country
  • US uses it veto powers against action to move their embassy out of Jerusalem + back Israeli settlements from being seen as illegal
84
Q

What were global poverty levels in 1990 and 2024?

A
  • Global poverty levels
  • 1990 - 37.1%
  • 2024 - 8.5%
85
Q

Explain what the Washington Consensus is

A
  • Ten economic policies which constitute the ‘standard reform package’ for crisis-wrecked developing countries
  • Loans are given by institutions such as the IMF, EU, World Bank
86
Q

Explain modernisation theory

A
  • Modernisation theory = the ‘pre-conditions for take-off’ involes the production of capital + technology from the West + investment by Western companies and government aid
  • Leads to more exporting of manufactered goods to the West as the country takes its place in the international trading system
87
Q

Explain dependancy theory and world systems theory

A
  • Dependancy theory = Resources flow from the periphery (e.g poor underdeveloped countries with cheaper labour costs) to the wealthy Western countries
  • World Systems theory = the entire world system maintains poverty - capitalists exploit people in both core countries + semi-periphery countries (e.g decling economically + developing economically)
88
Q

Explain how colonisation has caused poverty

A
  • MNCs based in Global North exploit states in the Global South for natural resources + cheap labour - profits are just returned to the North
  • In the colonial period contribute to global poverty as infrastructure was built which is used today e.g roads, railways, bridges, dams
89
Q

Explain how dependancy theory causes poverty

A
  • Colonialism has meant that core countries keep poorer ones in a state of dependancy + underdevelopment to increase their own economic growth
  • Global capitalism keeps developing countries in a state of dependancy because the Global North exploit the labour + raw materials of the Global South - they become dependant on the North for capital + investment
  • e.g COP29 poorer states to receive £300 billion from 2025-2035, when the old deal was £100 billion up to 2025)
  • Underdevelopment in a global context rather than specific interactions between individual nation-states
90
Q

Explain how the North-South divide has caused global poverty

A
  • Core nations such as the US + EU block less-developed nations to preserve the status quo for protectionist reasons (e.g Trump refused to work with the African Union)
  • Global South is closing the divide through successful industrialisation of the NICs e.g Brazil, Malaysia + the Philippines
  • Global North created intitutions within the Bretton Woods for their own benefit + dominate the decision maKing in those institutions e.g the ICC meant to only focus on African countries
  • China (part of the Global South) has seen a dramatic increase in economic growth + is projected to be the world’s largest economy 2030 - invests in many Global South states e.g Sub-Saharan Africa
  • Larger role of developing states in the G20
  • North created sustained wealth through industrialisation + manufactering contrasts with agricultural exports in the South
  • North also formatted global-free trade agreements favouring their exports when the South didn’t have exports inlcuded in free-trade agreement e.g the WTO
91
Q

Explain the role of NATO

A
  • Formed in 1949 - collective security alliance of 32
  • Principle goal is to safeguard the allies freedom and security by political + military means
  • Article 5 states that if an armed attack occures against one then it’s an attack against all
92
Q

Explain the NPT and its impact

A
  • Non-proliferation Treaty - prevents the spread of nuclear weapons + weapons technology to promote cooperation of nuclear disarmament
  • The treaty represents the binding commitment in a multilateral treaty to the goal of disarmament - from 1970
  • 191 states have joined the treaty including the 5 nuclear weapon states
93
Q

Explain, using examples, how the ICC has been successful

A

ICC
* 2016 - Bemba - VP of Congo sentenced to 18 years for using sexual violence as a weapon of war
* 2012 - Dyilo sentenced to 14 years in prison for human right abuses - recruiting child soldiers
* 2024 - Arrest warrents for Netanyahu + Putin
* 2025 - Arrest warrents for the Taliban - persecution of women

94
Q

Explain, using examples, why the ICC is not successful

A
  • Only 125 nations have signed up to it - America, Russia, China + India not part of it (70% of the world’s population outside ICC jursidiction)
  • States do not have to co-operate with its ruilings + has little power to enforce them
  • Only convicted African nations - AU has urged members not to co-operate/consider leaving - weakens it powers further
  • 2016 - Burundi, South Africa + Namibia announced they were leaving
95
Q

Kyoto Protocol

A
  • Adopted in 1997 - 195 parties - committees countries to limit + reduced greenhouse gases emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets
  • From 2020 147 parties deposited their instrument of acceptance - commitments
  • Uses fines to enforce the regulations - negative impact causes some to leave - e.g Canada left in 2020 because otherwise they were facing $14 billion fine - damaging their economy
  • However there’s no US involvement
96
Q

Why was NATO’s presence in Afghanistan controversial

A
  • Military personnel from NATO suffered considerable casulties - 2000 US + 400 UK citizens were killed
  • A number of ‘friendly fire’ incidents
  • NATO were killing civilians through airtrikes
97
Q

Explain why NATO’s role in the world is still important

A
  • NATO v Russia = example of a ‘security dilemma’
  • The EU needs NATO’s military capability + NATO needs the EU’s political expertise
  • E.g co-operated on their action against piracy on the Somalian coast
  • NATO defends against Russian aggression - especially for newer NATO members e.g Sweden, Finland etc + Ukraine and Georgia as aspiring members to protect them against dictatorships
  • NATO in the baltic states - expanded its military presence in the area e.g European Response force has grown from 13,000 to 40,000 troops + a specialist spearhead force of 5000
98
Q

Is the NATO alliance breaking down

A
  • US politicans have become isolationist characters - USA funds are now only 16% of the annual budget (not 70%) - Europe is now doing more than ever
  • 2024 - 23 out of 32 members will reach 2% GDP target
  • 2024 - Poland is the top spender - 4.1% of it GDP
99
Q

Give examples of when NATO has provided humanitarian aid across the world

A
  • 1995 ‘Operation deliberate force’ carried out air strikes on the Bosnian Serb army - massacred thousands of Muslims in Serbia
  • No ‘fly zone’ + air strikes on Colonel Gaddafi’s regime in Libya
  • Counter piracy operations in Somalia to protect international shipping
  • 1999 - NATO launched 80 days of air strikes to protect Kosovar Albanians from Yuogslavia
100
Q

Explain why treaties are ineffective means of global governance

A
  1. States can choose whether or not to join - which makes more isolationist states likely to refuse + powerful states can opt out (especially significant military powers)
101
Q

Explain how treaties have prevented the spread of nuclear weapons

A
  • Non-proliferation of nuclear weapons (NPT) which stop countries without them from making them - encourages disarmament
  • All 5 UNSC countries signed it - they cannot share nuclear science with anyone
  • Comprehensive Ban Treaty aims to stop the testing of nuclear weapons
  • South Africa when it signed the NPT gave up all of its weapons
  • Aside from North Korea no other state has developed nuclear weapons since the 1980s
102
Q

Explain how treaties haven’t prevented the spread of nuclear weapons

A
  • India, Pakistan + North Korea - haven’t signed the NPT
  • The USA + Russia still own 90% of the worlds nuclear weapons
  • France, UK + USA all improve exisiting weapons - 2016 £31 billion on renewing Trident
  • E.g Iran’s intent to devleop nuclear weapons - 2015 Iranian Nuclear Deal - committed to halting its nuclear weapons programme ith regular checks - in return UNSC + EU stopped economic sanctions crippling the economcy - Trump broke the deal
103
Q

Explain the key functions of the IMF

A
  • Surveillance - reviews policies from different countries + advises its 189 member states on the best financial decisions which foster economic stability + improve living conditions
  • Lending - when members suffer debt crisis/economic instability they can request IMF financial assistance
  • Capacity building - IMF experts train members on managing their economy e.g how to have fair tax systems
104
Q

Explain how the IMF has helped states in crisis - examples

A
  • 1976 it lent $3.9 million to the UK as it struggled to cope with its financial crisis
  • Main crises - Asian financial crisis (1997), emergency lending to Brazil (1998) + Argentina (2000) + Eurozone crisis (2008)
  • Since 2008 financial crash works with member states to increase economic reserves for a future crisis
105
Q

Explain how the lending function of the IMF works

A
  • Member states pay a quota based on the size of their economy
  • Any loans they receive vary based on population size
  • Largest borrowers in 2024 = Chile, Mexico, Nigeria, Morocco
106
Q

Explain whether or not the IMF is fair and democratic

A
  • IMF is undemocratic because voting power + decision making is weighted + is based on how much member states chose to pay
  • Most economically powerful states pay the most to the IMF + in return are allocate more decision making power
  • Vote share - China + Japan (6%), France + UK (4%), USA (16%)
107
Q

Explain what the IMP SAPs involve

A
  • States is financial crises must agree to SAP conditions to receive the help - Western ideology
  • Cutting wasteful public spending + raising taxes to eliminate a budget deficit
  • Selling government owned assests for private ownership
  • Increasing taxes by cutting public services
  • Cutting public sector wages
108
Q

Explain reasons why SAPs are ineffective

A
  • Excessive demands on states - lessens sovereignty
  • Western nations have a great deal of power - imposes Western economic management ideals
  • Economic reforms = increase in corporate profits e.g rich get richer
  • Developing countries have increased prosperity but increases in inequality - do SAPs disproportionately benefit the rich?
109
Q

Explain how the IMF’s SAP programme worked in Pakisatan

A

Pakistan - increased amount of taxes to ease government debt - in 2009 it was estimated the 3.2 million Pakistanis who owned multiple properties + bank accounts didn’t pay tax
* Privatised the national airline + 67 state owned companies
* Pakisatan still received several loans despite not making progress on privatisation
* IMF assessed tax revenues as ‘below potential’

110
Q

What are the two key institutions of the World Bank

A
  1. International Bank for Reconstruction + Development - provides loans to middle-income countries - some of the loans are SAPs
  2. International Development Association - provides loans to the poorest countries - low/zero interest
111
Q

Explain the key aims/goals of the World Bank Organisation

A
  • Improve agriculture/food growth/transport infrastructure - people have more disposable income to spend in the economy = more economic growth
    1. Provide loans to support development
    2. Allocates $20 billion of loans annually
    3. Emphasis on reducing poverty - SDPs
    4. Goal to end poverty
    5. Boost shared prosperity
    6. Fund specific development projects
    7. Analysis on development issues
112
Q

Explain how the World Bank is undemocratic

A
  • World Bank agrees to new loans, programmes, budgets - put to a member vote
  • States have to be unamiously accepted by a vote by other member states to join - voting power linked to the amount of funds which they all contribute
113
Q

Examples of the World Banks’ growing impact

A
  • In 2021 - $63 billion of low interest loans
  • Funded 275 projects
  • Works with other institutions e.g Arab League to reduce unemployment in Arab nations
114
Q

Explain how the World Bank is effective

A
  1. Moved away from SAPs to human development
  2. Direct grants over loans to poorer nations - prevents them from going into debt
  3. By 2030 wants to reduce the people living in absolute poverty to 3% + boost income growth in every country in the bottom 40%
  4. Considers the impact of the loans e.g environmentally
  5. Provides loans for e.g improving public health, combatting water security reducing conflict, increasing trade, improving financial systems
115
Q

Explain why the World Bank is ineffective

A
  1. Imbalance of voting powers is outdated for the globalised world - BRIC countries have less than a 1/4 of the voting power of the USA
  2. World Bank contributions are miniscule compared to private investment in China ($69 billion) compared to the World Banks ($42.6 billion) - critics argue it should focus on poor nations which are conflict ridden + so don’t recieve private investment
  3. Encourgaes poor countries to produce cash crops e.g cocoa + coffee - leaves them vulnerable to large companies which control the makets
  4. Growing cash crops reduces the amount of land to grow domestic food to feed the population- cycle of poverty
  5. Good democratic governance is not a condition of the loands - can go to corrupt governments
  6. Encourages unsustainable development - grows crops for exports
116
Q

Explain how the WTO is set up and its key policy values

A
  • 166 member countries - 97% of all world trade
  • General Agreement on Tarrifs and Trade 1947 - 45,000 tariff removals were agreed impacting $10 billion worth of trade
  • Non-discriminatory - if states have a trade deal with one country the other must be offered it - openess with trade
  • Emphasise free trade, lowering import bans or quotas
  • Increased competition with states not interfering to give themselves an unfair advantage
117
Q

Explain the key policies of the WTO and where they have been successful

A
  • Commitment to involving less-developed countries so they can become full participant in international trade
  • Protectionist tarrifs have fallen steadily + avergae less than 5% in industrial countries
  • Decision occur through a consensus only - protects developing countries - 2/3 of members
  • Baesd on comparative advantage - states prosper by using assests (human, industrial, financial) to produce what they can best - then trade those good for ones other countries produce best
118
Q

Explain the negatives of the WTO

A
  • Principle of free trade has increased inequality industrialised countries gain access to the markets of developing states without the prospect of foreign compeitition
  • Trade become global needs rather than local needs + places profit over the protection of the environment or worker’s rights
  • Common Agricultural Policy use quotas + tariffs to block imports of foreign food while subsidising exports to undermine the livelihood of farmer in competitor countries

e.g EU/USA with developng countries such as China, Brazil + India especially agricultural protectionism

119
Q

Explain what the G7 is and its role

A
  • G7 - 7 most successful economies - but outdated doesn’t include the BRIC countries
  • G7 has no formal rules, can invite any states, IGOs or NGos to meetings
  • No budget or secretariat
  • Decisions are non-binding - has flexibility but lacks accountability
  • Aid to Ukraine - 2023/2024 + G7 Action Plan on Countering Terrorism and Violent Extremism + Minsk Protocol (agreement to brind the end of the Ukraine war)
120
Q

Explain what the G20 is and what its role is

A
  • G20 includes the 20 most successful economies - includes many of the world’s emerging powers + culturally diverse e.g China, Saudi Arabia, Korea
  • Together it represents nearly 2/3 of the world’s population +3/4 of all world trade
  • Invites IGOs e.g AU, ASEAN with non-G20 states e.g Thailand, Singapore
  • Summits end with a ‘communique’ agreed by every state - watered down to please all of the members
  • Little accountability for decisions made
  • Forum for conflict resolution - due to the diversity of states within the G20
121
Q

Explain the R2P Principle

A
  • Responsibility to Protect asserts that sovereign states bear the main responsibility for protecting their citizens against genocide, war crimes etc - when a state cannot do this the international community has a duty to intervene + protect the population by the UNSC, UNGA, Regional Organisations
122
Q

Explain why the UNSC exercises the R2P the most

A

UNSC
* Has the most legitmacy + effectiveness - most power within international law
* Political legitmacy because 10 non-permanent members from every region - backing of the whole international community
* P5 can also mobilise the financial, bureaucratic and military resources
* Major concern - P5 may act to protect their own interests e.g between 1911-2014 the UNSC authorised 60 UN pecekeeping missions mainly in Somalia + Bosina - only 2 have been authorised since because of deteriorating relations between the US + Russia

123
Q

Explain why the UNGA exercises the R2P the most

A

UNGA
* Humanitarian interventions carried out with the UNGA’s approval have some legal basis in exercising this duty if the UNSC fails
* UNGA is the most representative organ it gives significant political legitmacy to humanitarian interventions
* Absence of veto power gives more timely action
* Uniting for Peace procedure requires that resolutions have a 2/3 majority
* UNGA resolutions lack the legal force of the UNSC

124
Q

Examples of regional organisations humanitarian operations

A

Regional Organisations
* EU - EUMAM Ukraine provides training for the armed services of Ukraine

  • NATO - 2023 support for Turkey delivering temporary shelters post the earthquake
  • NATO - 4500 Allied troops in Kosovo to maintain humanitarian security
  • AU - Mission in Ethiopia which has led the disarmament of Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) combatants, humanitarian access
125
Q

Explain reasons why regional organisations exercise the R2P

A
  • Interventions authorised by regional organisations help toalleviate the common concern that humanitarian intervention is a guise for neo-imperalism by Western countries
  • Stronger incentives to ensure that the aaftermath of a HI is managed well - common critique of HI is that there is inadeuqate planning post-conflict which involes nation-building, restoring rule of law
  • Because regional organisations take greater care to ensure sufficient post-conflict planning
  • Regional organisations have a deeper understanding of local cultures
126
Q

Explain why the EU can be seen as a major power

A
  • Marie argues that the EU should be a major power
    1. Leads on climate + regulation of technology firms
    2. Euro is the second-largest currency behind the U.S dollar
    3. Political strength using soft + hard power
127
Q

Explain the role of the AIB and why its powerful

A
  • Asian Infrastrucutre Bank - challenges the dominance of the IMF + World Bank
  • 110 members - 46 in Asia, 26 in Europe + 22 in Africa
  • China, India, Germany, South Korea, Australia, France, Indonesia, UK, Saudi Arabia - have the most voting powers in order
  • Philippines: Bataan–Cavite Interlink Bridge - funded by the AIB - 2024
  • Bangladesh: Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Development Project - funded by the AIB - 2020
128
Q

Explain whether the world is moving towards bipolarity

A
  • Bipolar system - U.S + China
  • 2022 U.S National Security Strategy suggests that they view China is the only competitor with the economic, military + technological power to challnenge them
  • China spends more on defence than Russia, India + Saudi Arabia combined
  • China’s GDP is over double that of its fellow BRIC members
  • U.S + China account for around 35% of global GDP + 535 of global military spending
129
Q

Explain what realist thinkers think about bipolarity between U.S + China

A
  • Kupchan argues that the emerging international order resembles that of the Cold War
  • He argues that the U.S + China are engaging in an intense security competition but the threat of MAD will deter both sides - security dilema
  • Alison coined the term ‘Thucydides Trap’ to describe the tendency for new great powers + existing hegemons to become extremely suspicious of the other
  • Increasing animosity between China + U.S - Taiwan, freedom of navigation, trade + human rights
130
Q

Explain how realists view the U.S’s state capabilities

A
  • U.S and allies fighting terrorism + promoting liberal democracy
  • e.g Afghanistan which turned into a disatrous ‘forever war’ + when they left it led to the Taliban taking control + 13 American military personel dead
  • Post 9/11 conflicts in the Middle East cost the U.S Treasury $8 trillion + the deaths of 1 million people
  • U.S global GDP has fallen from 20% to 15%
  • Brooks + Wohlforth are realists who argue that American military spending is still higher than the next 10 countries combined
  • American military spending as a percentage of GDP has only slightly fallen from 46% in 1990 to 40% in 2020
  • U.S extends its alliances (NATO, AUKUS) whilist China has only one offical security ally in North Korea
131
Q

Explain how China is becoming a global power

A
  • Emerging powers have strengthened + are increasingly confident in challenging the US
  • China’s annual military spending has risen from $10 billion in 1990 to $290 billion in 2022
  • China hs been accused of militarising islands in the South China Sea + threatening to forcibly reunify Taiwan
  • China’s share of global GDP had risen from 7% to 19%
132
Q

Explain how India is becoming a global power

A
  • India’s annual military spending has skyroketed from around £11 billion in 1990 to $81 billion in 2022
  • India is the 4th biggest spender on defence behind the U.S, China + Russia
  • Strong economic growth has allowed India to improve its military
  • India wants to have a more autonomous foreign policy
  • India is part of the Quadrilateral Security Dialouge - U.S, UK + Australia but still maintains close ties with Moscow (increased oil exports from Russia since invasion in Ukraine which it has not condemned) + a member of the Shaghai Cooperation Organisation
  • India’s share of global GDP has risen from 4% to nearly 8%
133
Q

Explain Mearsheimer’s views on how the world has moved towards multipolarity

A
  • Mearsheimer argues that NATO’s expansion into Eastern Europe in which the U.S solidifed hegemony which sped up the return of mulipolarity because other countries felt threatened
  • Exemplified by Russia’s invasion of Georgia in 2008, Crimea in 2014 + Ukraine in 2022
  • Mearsheimer blames Russia’s aggression on the West’s refusal to take Moscow’s ‘security concerns’ during the unipolar era
  • Unipolar argument rests on the view that mulipolarity/bipolarity requires great powers in international system to have roughly equal capabilities/influence on geopolitics
134
Q

Explain liberal views on how multipolarity has prevented wars

A
  • Liberals highlight the economic interdependance between the U.S + China disincentivises war
  • Trade between the U.S + China totalled $758.4 billion in 2022 meaning conflict is hugely detrimental to both countries economies
  • China has benefitted from its partial integration into liberal international order - intro into WTO in 2001
135
Q

Explain the key strengths of the G7

A

Strengths
* Informality allows its members to focus on any issues + respond to major issues
* Small number of states means that there is little gridlock in decisions
* Little impact on state sovereignty
* Makes key interventions - $20 billion support for Ukraine + pressure on Russia

136
Q

Explain the key weaknesses of the G7

A

Weaknesses
* Anti-globalisation protesters criticise the G7 for its apparent inability to deal with poverty, climate change etc
* Little accountability for states commitments due to the informality
* Richest countries - promote Western neo-liberal ideas only
* Include other significant nations - the ‘outreach five’ (Brazil, China, India, Mexico + South Africa)
* Meet less frequently
* Outdated vision of the world’s economic powers e.g China second greatest economic power
* States all agree with each other - expulsion of Russia shows how they failed to persuade Russia to pursue a different course

137
Q

Explain, using examples, how the ECHR has been successful

A
  • 90% compliance with its rulings - provides Europe with a moral code
  • Successfuly condemned human right abuses in Russia (2005)
  • Ruled that Bosnina constitution discriminated against Jews (2005)
    Stopped Abu Qatada from being deported from the UK (2015)
  • Prevented Rwanda scheme from occuring in the UK - said Rwanda wasn’t a safe country
138
Q

Explain, using examples, how the ECHR has been successful

A
  • If a state refuses to abide by the court it has no coercive power
  • UK defied the court by not accepting that prisoners should receive the vote + life imprisonment despite the court labelling it a inhumane
  • 2016 ECHR ruled the UK government ‘Investigatory Power Act’ was illegal - Parliament have sovereignty so ignored the ruiling
  • 2015 - Russia made Rusian law take precedence over the ECHR
139
Q

Explain the effectiveness of the Yugoslavia UN Tribunal

A

Yugoslavia UN Tribunal
* 1992 - Slovenia + Croatia broke away
* 1993 - Bosian Serbs wanted to keep Yugoslavia together - rule by Serbia

  • Muslim Bosians were forced out of their home in ‘ethnic cleansing’ + genocide
  • In Srebrenia in 1995 - 8000 Muslim boys were executed
  • Government bombed Srebrenia - 10,000 died
  • Total - 100,000 dead
  • Trial held in 1993 + brought sitting President Milosovic + Kritic (army officer) - sentenced to 40 years
  • By 2017 the tribunal had convicted 83 war criminals
140
Q

Explain the effectiveness of the Rwanda UN Tribunal

A

Rwanda UN Tribunal
* 1997 - Genocide which killed 800,000 of the ethnic group called Tutsis

  • Tribunal convicted 61 individuals - including the former PM who was the first head of state to be imprisoned for genocide
  • Made a law stating that rape was a part of genocide + criminal
141
Q

Explain the effectiveness of the Sierra Leone UN Tribunal

A

Sierra Leone UN Tribunal
* 2002 - investigation into crimes during th civil war
* President Taylor supported criminal gangs e.g ‘Westside Boys’ who murdered many + hacked off limbs - by 1999 - 50,000 had already died
* Taylor was sentenced to 50 years imprisonment - first head of state convicted for war crimes
* Imprisoned 15 others as well

142
Q

Explain the limitations of UN Tribunals

A
  • Only heard from one side e.g Tokyo trials only heard by the USA
  • Serbs criticse the Yugoslavian tribunal for only hearing crimes committed by Serbs + ignoring those against them - shows court bias + intensified ethnic tension
  • Rwadan tribunal has been criticised for only investigating crimes against the Tutsis + but the Hutus experienced crimes agaisnt them as well
  • President Taylor (Sierra Leone) was imprisoned initally in the Hauge now in the UK - reinforces idea that Africa canot deliver justice itself
143
Q

Explain the further limitations of UN Tribunals

A
  • Saddam Hussein wasn’t tired by an international court instead in Iraq - meant he was eligible for the death penalty - insisted by the US - Iraq tribunal only had to be ‘satisfied’ of his guilt not beyond resonable doubt
  • UN Tribunals only held in ‘some’ circumstances - isn’t a clear stand against human rights abuse
  • UN P5 can veto a UN Tribunal - Putin vetoed a tribunal for the shooting down on Malaysian flight 283 by Russina rebels
144
Q
A

Politics (11 decks)

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