Core Political Ideology Flashcards

1
Q

What are the key beliefs of liberals?

A
  • Liberals believe in equality of opportunity not equality of outcome (key difference between them + socialists)
  • Liberals aim to maximise liberty not equality
  • Liberals aim to mitage the effects of discrimination
  • Believe that society must give up individual liberty to achieve equality; the aim of equality must be dropped to achieve individual liberty
  • Rawls: inequality can be justified if it benefits society as a whole; cannot be justified if it leads to the poorest beinh worse off than they were before
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2
Q

What do liberals believe about tolerance?

A
  • Everyone has an equal moral worth + everyone should have the same rights as others
  • All liberals celebrate diversity
  • Believe that illiberal thoughts are allowed but not illiberal actions
  • Liberals don’t tolerate the intolerable; harm principle
  • Everyone can do anything they want if nobody is being harmed by their actions
  • e.g FGM is a cultural practice that isn’t tolerated by liberals; they accept + agree with FGM reporting laws
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3
Q

What does liberism believe about individualism

A
  • Believes in the primacy of the individual
  • Individual freedom shouldn’t be stopped unless it causes harm
  • The conformity of society stifles individualism
  • Don’t like excessive state power
  • Freedom of speech + assembly are key
  • Clash between liberalism + religious fundamentalism
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4
Q

What do liberals believe about freedom of liberty?

A
  • Ability + right to make decisions in our own interests
  • People can join any political organisation of their our choice (if they don’t pose a threat)
  • Children cannot have full rights; individual rights can only be given to rational + responsible adults
  • Seeks emancipation of the individual from outdated conventions
  • Best way to run the economy is through capitalism
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5
Q

What is postive and negative freedom?

A

Positive freedom; freedom to perform a certain activity without outside interference
Negative freedom; freedom from discrimination or harm

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6
Q

What do liberals believe about rationalism?

A
  • Humans are rational + capable of reason; our behaviour is determined by rational interest rather than irrational emotions + prejudice
  • Humans should be entrusted with as much freedom as possible
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7
Q

Explain liberal democracy

A
  • Democracy which balances the will of the people (shown in elections) with limited government (state) + a respect for civil liberties
  • Classical liberals viewed democracy as a ‘mob rule’ + ‘tyranny of majority’; as the majorities view could threaten the liberty of minorities aka elective dictatorship
  • Want the state to be open, accountable + transparent
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8
Q

Explain why liberals support laissez-faire capitalism

A
  • Laissez-faire capitalism = an economic system in which the government abstains from interfering in the allocation of resources
  • Liberalism + capitalism are synonymous; capitalism is even supported by social liberals
  • Capitalism is more economically efficient as it enables consumers to choose, allows for economic growth + for countries to trade peacefully
  • Tensions exist between modern (more intervention) + classical liberlas (little to no intervention) on how much the state should intervene in the economy
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9
Q

How do liberals view the state?

A
  • State is ‘neccessary’ to avoid disorder but ‘evil’ as it can remove individual liberty
  • “Agents of the state” should limit their actions
  • Liberals try to restrict state power + aim to strenthen human rights
  • State should allow full religious expression
  • Unlike anarchists liberals believe their is some role for the state; social contract
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10
Q

How do liberals view the relationship between the state and citizens?

A

Role of the State: state’s role should be constrained by the conventions of liberal democracy
Role of the Citizen: should be legislation + constitutional safeguards to protect human rights + liberty

Liberal Aims of the State: wish to disperse power away from the centre + towards local land (devolution)
Liberal Aims of Citizens: liberals are highly supportive of constitutionalism

Liberals’ position on the State: those in power should be held to account + subject to adequate levels of scrutiny
Liberal’s position on Citizens: liberals favour a codified constitution with a clear set of human rights (US Bill of Rights)

Application on the State: liberals strongly favour open government (FOIA 2000)
Application on Citizens: individuals should always possess inalienable rights

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11
Q

Explain liberal beliefs about freedom of speech; key thinker Mill

A
  • Mill’s harm principle; humans can do whatever they want as long as their actions don’t harm anyone
  • Free speech should be limited by laws which prevent slander + discrimination
  • Mill denied the right of the harm principle (to not experience harm) to the **“uncivillised, childish and backwards” **people who have very extremist or ‘wrong’ views
  • Mill argues that there must be some limitation upon human behaviour + to protect the liberty of the other
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12
Q

What to classical and modern liberals disagree on when it comes to the state’s involvement in the economy

A

Both classical + modern liberal seek to promote liberty
* Classical liberals beliece that ‘trickle down’ econmics allows wealth to reach the poorest through marker activity
* Modern liberals believe that the state needs to use **progressive taxation + the ‘wefare state’ to help the poorest **
Progressive taxation = a tax system, in which those on a **higher income pay a higher % of their income tax **

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13
Q

What are the shared beliefs for all types of liberals?

A
  1. Belief in all key principles of liberals
  2. The state should ensure equality of opportunity
  3. The state can be involved in taking anti-discrimination measures (positive discrimination/affirmative action)
  4. The state should ensure liberty + freedom for all
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14
Q

Explain the views and beliefs of Classical Liberalism?

A

Classical Liberalism:
Ideolgical spectrum: Libertarian right
Key Theorists: Smith + James Mill
Dominant century: 19th century
Role of the State: Night-watchmen; should run a ‘balanced budget’ and adopt **‘good fiscal housekeeping’
Economy: ** Laissez-faire capitalism
; in favour of privatisation and deregulation; “the freer the
market the freer the people”

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15
Q

Explain the views and beliefs of Modern Liberalism?

A

Modern Liberalism:
Ideolgical spectrum: Libertarian left
Key Theorists: Keynes, Beveridge, T.H. Green, J.S.Mill(later work)
Dominant century: Post war consensus
Role of the State: Intervention to promote liberty and equality of opportunity ‘from the cradle to the grave’; in recession there is no need to run a ‘balanced budget’ and a **budget deficit may be needed
Economy: Mixed economy; a
modest
redistribution of wealth and income**
is allowed

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16
Q

Explain what Smith argues about capitalism and the marketand what type of liberalist belief is it

A
  • **Early classical liberalism **
  • Smith argued that capitalism, via the **‘individual hand’ **of market forces had a limitless capacity to enrich society and the individuals within it
  • The wealth acquired by individuals would trickle down to the rest of the population
  • This was only so long as the state took a laissez-faire approach to the workings of a market-economy
  • Smith also advocated the end of tariffs and duties on the importation of goods to protect domestic producers. He argued for the spread of** free trade between nation-states**
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17
Q

Explain what Mill believed about debelopmental individualism and why it was important and what type of liberalist belief is it

A

* Later classical liberalism *
* Mill hoped that
developmental individualism
would advance individual potential
* This would promote a** liberal consensus **in society, safeguarding tolerance, rationality and individualism.
* A vote would be withheld from the unschooled and illiterate, whereas those with a university degree would receive more than one vote.

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18
Q

Explain what Friedan argued about how modern liberalism allows for state interventions

A
  • Friedan argued that interventionist agencies like the EEOC were consistent with liberal values as the criminalisation of sexual discrimination merely protected the rights of certain sections of society, thereby consistent with **Mill’s harm principle **
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19
Q

Explain what later classical liberal belived about individuals autonomy within advancing societies and what this meant to allow for equality of opportunity

A

* Later classical liberalism *
* Argued that advanced societies showed that **individuals were not autonomous
but were actually subject to social and economic factors that were a creation of an industrialised society
* So self-realisation was not possible for some individuals, so
social justice would be required if individuals were to fulfil their potential**

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20
Q

Explain what Wolstonecraft argued about the treatment of women in the 18th century and what type of liberal she was

A
  • Early classical liberalism
  • Mary Wollstonecraft argued that the treatment of women in the 18th century was an affront to reason and an affront to the individual liberty of half the adult population
  • Wollstonecraft contested the idea that women were emotional creatures, suited only to a life of domesticity
  • While we see such attitudes as liberal, they were considered radical and revolutionary in the 18th century.
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21
Q

Explain what Mill meant by developmental liberalismand what type of liberal belief this was

A

* Later classical liberalism
*Mill’s interpretation of liberalism has often been referred to as developmental liberalism
* This was the idea that an individual was a progressive being and should not be limited to liberty in the now but should be concerned with what he or she could become

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22
Q

Explain how modern liberals view the role of the state within society

A

Whereas classical liberals upheld the view that a minimal state was necessary to safe-guard individualism
Modern liberals argued that only a larger state could repel the new, socio-economic threats to freedom and individualism
This was seen with the Liberal government from 1906-1910 introducing many policies that guaranteed a** basic standard of living**

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23
Q

Explain Bentham’s utilitarian’ state

A
  • **Bentham’s utilitarian state **is a system which aims to maximise overall happiness and minimise suffering through democracy as people would be inclined not to prioritise their own interests but that of the whole of society thus allowing for social progress
  • Bentham introduced the idea that governments should act in a way which maximises the overall happiness of the majority by focusing on the **general welfare of the country **
  • Once widespread education had been achieved, liberal values could be furthered, refining Bentham’s utilitarian state as people would vote in the interests of all, not just in their own selfish interests
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24
Q

Explain Locke’s key beliefs about the state and human nature which were considered revolutionary in the 18th century

A

** Early classical liberalism*
* Locke’s idea that there should be
government of consent **was a radical idea at the time.
* Believe that **humans were inherently rational or that society should be geared towards maximising individual freedom **were widely held in the 18th century
* Lockean ideas in the 17th and 18th centuries needed vigorous argument in defence and sometimes revolutionary upheaval

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25
Q

Explain Keynes’s beliefs about capitalism and what type of liberalism it is

A
  • Modern liberalism
  • Keynes** rejected the argument that the market is a self-correcting mechanism** naturally inclined towards reaching a state of equilibrium
  • Believed that laissez-faire capitalism with its cycles of recession and unemployment did nothing to advance individualism
  • Keynes argued that the state must steer the economy and manage demand so that full employment could be secured, without which individual liberty could not be achieved
  • Believed the government should implement a system of automatic stabilisers to smooth out the trade cycle; state could** ‘fine-tune’ the economy by manipulating the level of demand** within the economy
  • An** increase in government spending and a reduction in taxation would bolster demand**, whereas a
    cut in government spending and an increase in taxation would lower consumer demand; so gov could deal with both inflation + unemployment
  • Keynes’ economic strategy influenced successive world governments in the 20th century, from Roosevelt’s New Deal in the 1930s to successive British governments from 1945-1979 + Brown’s response to the financial crisis of 2008
  • It matched both the Tory notion
    of paternalism and the social democratic strand of socialism
    .
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26
Q

Explain Rawls key beliefs about the most disadvantaged and what type of liberalism they are

A
  • Rawls argued that society should look to ameliorate the condition of the least fortunate in society
  • Rawls didn’t argue for equality of outcome and accepted that there would be inequality depending on an individual’s efforts
  • This is what distinguished modern liberalism from socialism and a centrally planned economy
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27
Q

Explain Smiles beliefs about individualism and what type of liberal beliefs they are

A

* Later classical liberalism
* Smiles feared that individualism was being threatened by the advent of socialism
* Believed that self-reliance was achievable for most individuals, including the working-classes
* Industrialisation made this more difficult, the challenge would merely make more fully developed individuals. A socialist state would **remove this challenge and leave stunted human beings with their liberty wasted*

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28
Q

Explain early classical liberal beliefs about the minimal state

A
  • Thomas Jefferson summed up[ the minimal state when he said, ‘The government that is best is that which governs least … when government grows, our liberty withers.
  • The belief in a minimal state also strengthened classical liberalism’s faith in the dispersal of political power; a **state with checks and balances **would be one where bold state action would be difficult and therefore infrequent
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29
Q

Explain how Bentham argued for a utilitarian society in a modern world, how the state would be involved in the this and what type of liberal belief it is

A

* Later classical liberalism **
* Bentham acknowledged that in an industrialised economy there would be more clashes between individuals than early classical liberals had envisaged
* The liberal state would need to
create legislation based on the greatest happiness of the greatest number of the population**
* This provided liberalism with one of its earliest** justifications for democracy**

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30
Q

Explain what Spencer argues about a mnimal state and what type of liberal belief it is

A

* Early classical liberalism *
* Spencer sought to apply Darwin’s theory of natural selection to society
* A
minimal state and ‘survival of the fittest’ would lead to a society where those unable to enjoy the benefits of individualism would be **eliminated, creating a society where individual freedom could thrive
* Known as
‘social Darwinism’**

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31
Q

Explain what Rawls believed about how the enlarged state and what type of liberal belief it is

A

* Modern classical liberalism*
* Rawls set out to show that while an enlarged state would require individuals sacrificing some of their money in the form of progressive taxation
* Rawls argued that the enabling state was perfectly consistent with the liberal state of government by consent
* Rawls proposed the** ‘original position’ where individuals make decisions under a ‘veil of ignorance’ where individuals are unaware of their social position, gender, talents **and other characteristics; allows for **fair and impartial decision-making
* Rawls argued for the
Liberal Position** in which everyone should have equal basic liberties
* Difference Principal in which social and economic inequalities should only exist if they benefit the most disadvantaged members
of society
* Rawls proposed that an enabling state requiring progressive taxation and wealth redistribution create a more equitable society.

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32
Q

Explain what Beveridge argued about the five major evils, what type of liberal belief and how did Attle try to limit them

A
  • **Modern liberalism **
  • Beveridge was a liberal social scientist and civil servant who advanced modern liberal ideas; provided the** foundation for Britain’s post-war welfare state**
  • Argued that the five major evils that threatened society, Beveridge argued that they could only be overcome with a major extension of state provision
    1. Want = inadequacy of income + lack of basic necessities among the population
    2. Disease = **absence of adequate healthcare + medical services **for many
    3. Ignorance = lack of educational opportunities + inadequate access to high-quality education for many
    4. Squalor = poor living conditions + a lack of affordable housing
    5. Idleness = unemployment or underemployment
  • Attlee aimed to limit these evils through the NHS = providing universal free healthcare for all at the point of use, **Social Security System **= providing financial assistance to many during unemployment, disability, retirement etc, **Education Reforms **= creating more schools, policies which improved access to education + made it free to all children, Housing Programs = providing adequate + affordable housing to many, over a million were built
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33
Q

Explain Mill’s beliefs about how democracy would work in modern day society and what type of liberal belief it is

A

* Later classical liberalism **
*Mill sought to make the case for representative democracy, anticipating universal suffrage
* An
enlarged electorate would not make decisions** for themselves but would elect representatives to make decisions for them
* Such representatives would not side with the majority but would seek to accommodate the various opinions in society, thereby producing the** broad consent of all**
* Mill was also concerned that the **majority of voters were ill-equipped to choose intelligent representatives **that would act rationally and argued that universal suffrage should be preceded by universal education
* Mill’s liberal view of a **minimal state and negative freedom **made him reluctant to sanction state intervention to provide state education

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34
Q

Explain why modern liberals aren’t in favour of direct democracy

A
  • Modern Liberals are not in favour of direct democracy., fearing that referendums and initiatives threaten the ‘tyranny of the majority’
  • Modern liberals have even been willing to **uphold human rights at the expense of representative democracy **
  • Support for the Human Rights Act (1998), transferring power from elected representatives to unelected judges and their support for supranational bodies such as the EU
  • Example; Brexit referendum, 51.9% said Yes and 48.1% voted No
  • This has led to the** tyranny of the majority** as there wasn’t as needed in other countries’ supermajority and a complex issue was oversimplified to the public leading to inadequate knowledge among voters regarding the issue. Further, the multifaceted issue was simplified to a yes/no vote.
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35
Q

Explain what modern liberals believe about postive liberty and an enlarged state

A
  • Belief in positive liberty and an enlarged state
  • Friedan argues that the solutions to these problems lay in further** state regulation and legislation and, sometimes positive discrimination**
  • This involved the state and other employers correcting historical imbalances by discriminating in favour of individuals from groups that had previously been discriminated against
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36
Q

Explain all of Locke’s key ideas about social contract theory, limited government, and a stateless society

A

Locke (Early Classical Liberalism)
* **Social contract theory **– society, state and government are based on a theoretical voluntary agreement
* **Limited government **– that government should be limited and based on consent from below
* Locke begins with the assumption that individuals are rational entities. When offering their consent to the state, they are at the same time promoting their own self-interest. As rational entities, we fully acknowledge that our liberties are best protected via governance by the stateto uphold **basic liberties **and protect us from the threat of foreign invasion and social disorder
* Consent may be provided on a formal basis via an **election or on an informal setting as a consequence of tacit consent **

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37
Q

Explain Wollstonecraft key ideas about women in terms of liberal ideas and formal equality

A

Wollstonecraft (Early Classical Liberalism)
* Reason – women are rational and independent beings capable of reason
* Formal equality – in order to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have careers
* Wollstonecraft is one of the predominant figures within the first-wave of feminism. She is also a leading figure within the branch of theory described as liberal feminism
* Wollstonecraft is best-known for her work ‘A vindication of the rights of woman’ in which she argued that both men and women should be treated equally
as rational human beings
. She also claimed that women were not naturally inferior to men, but may appear to be because they’ve been denied educational opportunities
* Wollstonecraft advocated for** formal equality in which women were entitled to the same civil liberties as men**; so women would be able to experience a life of genuine liberty free from the constraints of patriarchy, being able to have careers

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38
Q

Explain Mill’s key ideas about the harm principle, tolerance + the type of actions humans take + state involvement

A

John Stuart Mill (Later Classical Liberalism)
* Harm principle – that individuals should be free to do anything except harm other individuals
* Tolerance – belief that the popularity of a view does not necessarily make it correct
* Mill makes a crucial distinction between self-regarding and other-regarding actions; we should be free to pursue those actions that in no way constrain the liberty of others
* The** state (on behalf of society) is only justifying in limiting our actions** when those actions impinge upon the freedom of others
* Mill’s conception of free will flows seamlessly from his previous work on the harm principle; we are sovereign entities capable of exercising free will + we should accept responsibility for charting our own path in life

39
Q

Explain more of Locke’s key ideas about social contract theory, limited government, and a stateless society

A

Early Classical Liberalism
* Locke declared that consent could be taken as assumed from the general behaviour of the people and the absence of major social disorder
* If we do not accept the laws of the land a sanction may be imposed; if the state were to act in violation of the contract, the people are entitled to withdraw their consent
* Argued that using** force to change someone’s beliefs is irrational**; they may say that they have changed their beliefs to avoid further torture, this does
not mean they’ve changed their beliefs
.
Locke’s argument is applicable towards the post-9/11 debate concerning the use of torture in relation to the ‘war against terror’
* According to Locke, a stateless society is one in which we would be devoid of freedom; only the state that can ever hope to adequately protect us from harm

40
Q

Explain Mill’s key ideas about despotism of custom, how tolerance operates in society + how to figure out the truth + facts

A

Later Classical Liberalism
* ‘Despotism of custom’, Mill warns us against the mediocrity of public opinion; believes there is a tendency to tell everyone to act in the same manner
Despotism of custom seeks to crush self-expression and is therefore contrary to the right and proper goal of a liberal society; need to facilitate “experiments in living” in order that freedom is experienced to the very full
* To** guard against the despotism of custom, we must avoid forcing our opinions on others unless we are certain of their truth**
* A liberal society is one that tolerates the full diversity of lifestyles
* To ascertain the truth, assumptions must be subject to the marketplace of ideas; essential that we play Devil’s advocate in order to establish that which holds true. In addition, Mill states that a ‘fact’ must face
the rigours of open debate

* Mill also points out that majority opinion can be wrong as the majority holds no true authority and no absolute certainty.
* Mill cites popular opinion of the past which has since been rejected by contemporary society

41
Q

Explain Mill’s key ideas about Bentham’s utilitarnism principle and his views about women in society

A

Later Classical Liberalism
* Mill departed from Bentham’s in his view of what constitutes happiness – claiming that higher pleasures are superior to the simple pursuit of pleasure. Mill adopts a more qualitative aspect to his search for the greatest happiness
* Mill was a passionate advocate of electoral reform,was a feminist. He advocated female emancipation long before the issue was on the political agenda. Mill also favoured** proportional representation long before it was a mainstream cause**

42
Q

Explain Rawls key ideas about the theory of justice, the veil of ignorance + how this scenario would build a fair society

A

Rawls (Modern Liberalism)
* Theory of justice – opinion that society must be just and guarantee each citizen a life worth living
* The veil of ignorance – a hypothetical scenario where** individuals agree on the type of society they want, from a position where they lack knowledge of their own position in society
* Veil of ignorance; requires us to place ourselves in the position of others. It also requires us to consider the danger of being born into poverty
* Rawls assumed that people would want a fairer society with adequate housing, safe neighbourhoods, a good education system and an unbiased criminal
justice system

* Society can be said to be
fair when we can state that no-one would care what circumstances **we would be born into
* When given the choice, we would prefer to live in a country like Denmark rather than risk the post-code lottery that characterised his native land

43
Q

Explain Rawls key ideas about the theory of justice, original position and what this means

A

Modern Liberalism
* Rawls promoted the notion of ‘justice as fairness’; the principles of justice
are those everyone would agree to from a position of ignorance

* To create a** just society, we first need to
agree on the principles behind justice**. These can be established from his famous thought experiment
* Original position means we are all equal in our ignorance. Under these conditions, we would agree to the liberty principle (such as freedom of expression and freedom from arbitrary arrest) and the difference principle (in which inequalities are permitted provided they are positions open to all and benefit the least
advantaged within society
).

44
Q

Explain Friedan’s key ideas about legal equality + opportunities for women + what stops women from advancing out of their role

A

Friedan (Modern Liberal)
* Legal equality – women are as capable as men and that oppressive laws and social views must be overturned
* Equal opportunitywomen are being held back from their potential because of the** limited number of jobs that are ‘acceptable’ for women**
* Friedan is widely considered to be the mother of women’s liberation, a leading exponent within liberal feminism and the figure who instigated the second-wave of the feminist movement
* Friedan exposed the stifling boundaries placed upon women (particularly mothers and housewives) and identified the **multiple frustrations of those who felt trapped **by
the confines of social expectations

45
Q

Explain Friedan’s key ideas about why women to fufill their potential, and feminine mystique

A

Modern Liberalism
* Friedan found that very few of them had ever seen a** positive female role-model who worked outside of the home whilst having a family; found that housewives
were
‘tied to the kitchen sink’ due to the constraints of family life**
* Friedan concludes that women were afraid
to ask themselves the devastating question – “is this all?” **
* Friedan claimed that
women were prevented from fulfilling their potential in life (especially in the public realm)** due to the confines of this cultural myth
* Friedan came to identify the importance of advertising in the creation of the
feminine mystique
; the feminine mystique was an illusion maintained by the male-dominated advertising industry
Friedman; “the feminine mystique says that the highest value and the only commitment for women is the fulfilment of their own femininity”

46
Q

Explain Friedan’s key ideas about patriarchal society and how the state can address gender inequality

A

Modern Liberalism
* Friedan believed** passionately in the emancipation of women from the confines of a patriarchal society.
* Friedan argued that
women were as capable as men** in terms of** performing any type of work or career path**
* An advocate of raising consciousness and lobbied in favour of **legislative reform to address gender inequality
* Friedan’s approach to the problems facing women typify the
liberal feminist position on the path towards female emancipation**
* The political process is dominated by men, Friedan and others believe there is sufficient scope within its boundaries for women to advance the feminist position

47
Q

Explain what Conservatives mean by State of Mind and Pragmatism

A
  • Conservatives don’t rely on or use a set of abtract ideological ideas - use traditions + political solutions as their guide
    Pragmatism - ‘being practical’ + doing what works
  • **Practical preceeds theory **
  • Decisions aren’t linked to a set of ideological principles but are instead reactionary + flexible
  • They view **humans as imperfect
  • Oakeshoot** - Conservatism ensures that the “cure is not worse than the disease”
48
Q

Give A02 examples of times when Conservatives have been flexible with their policies

A
  1. **University Tution Fees **- in 2005 the Tories said that they wanted to scrap fees - raised to £9000 in 2011
  2. Homosexuality - Thatcher introduced Section 28 (cannot promote homosexuality in schools + public office - due to AIDS + HIV) - Cameron then apolgised for Section 28 in 2009
  3. May - originally a Remainer but then “getting on with the job” of negotiating Brexit
  4. Sunak - originally against Rwanda Bill - decied to go ahead + enforce it - went to the Supreme Court rather than drop the matter
49
Q

Explain why Conservatives believe in the Status Quo + Tradition

A
  • Strong support for traditional institutions - Monarchy, Army, Contitution, nuclear family + Union (UK)
  • *Change to conserve -** status quo doesn’t have to be perfect** - changes should make society work better - for something **valuable to be preserved it had to be maintained **
  • E.g - May’s emphasis on keeping the **Union together + rejecting calls for another Scottish independance referendum **
  • Conservatives believe that** too much change undermines the very fabric of society **- “evoultion not revolution”
  • Oakeshott - “to be Conservative is to prefer the tried to the untried”
50
Q

Explain what Conservatives believe about authority and define it

A
  • Authority = recognised** right for those in power** to make decisions that others must accept
    **
    Key Beliefs
    1. Conformity is needed for social cohesion **
    2. **Gemeinsehaft
    (
    close communities)
    3. Need for
    intergration into a countries norms**
    4.** Opposed to multiculturism** (creates conflict - e.g **opposed to wearing religious symbols in schools**)
    5. **Authoritian stance on law + order **
51
Q

Define atomism, Noblesse Oblige, normative and laissez-faire

A
  • Atomism = **Humans seek autonomy + ‘space’ **- leads to a **vague view of society **- NR view
  • **Noblesse Oblige **- the ruiling class ave an obligation to rule in the interests of the enitre nation - due to their noble status
  • Normative - describes how arrangements in the future should be - **not held by conservatives **
  • Laissez-faire - involves allowing the **free-market to operate freely - though economic liberalism - associated with traditional conservatives + NR **
52
Q

Explain the key beliefs of Traditional Conservatism

A
  • Commitment to **hierarchy + paternalism **
  • Little relevance to modern day Britian - few people had the vote + linked with Edmund Burke
  • Hierarchy = **neccesary for society to function **- people need to accept their place in society for **noblesse oblige **
  • Evolved into one-nation conservatism
53
Q

Explain the key beliefs of One-Nation Conservatism

A
  • Response to **emergence of capitalism **
  • **Opposed to major radical changes in society **
  • Strong support for the values which generate a sense of **national unity + social cohesion **

Role of the State:
1. Natural arbitrator to prevent chaos + anarchy **
2.
Re-distribution of wealth** because the rich have a duty to the poor
3. The ‘welfare state’ is a good safety net - prevents revolution + social unrest
4. **State shouldn’t interfere too much in people’s individuals lives **

54
Q

Explain the key beliefs under the New Right

A
  • Marriage of neo-liberals + neo-conservative ideas
  • More right-wing than one-nation conservatism
  • **Economically libertarian + socially authoritian **
  • Strong law + order which emphasises traditional values
  • More market led economy - less role for the state through privatisation + deregulation
  • **Reduction on taxation **to allow for **‘trickle down’ **effect to occur + reduce the welfare state to tackle ‘dependancy culture’
  • **Rejection of pragmatism **
55
Q

Explain New Right views on the economy

A
  • The NR argues that by **disengaging from the economcy **+ allowing it to operate as it pleases the state can focus on its **purpose of providing order + security ** as Hobbes argues
  • The NR believe that a** capitalist economy is prosperous** + will lead to ‘popular capitaism’ + destroy socialism - it will also fund the state to rpovide a stronger army, police + other defensive agencies
56
Q

Explain how traditional conservatism clashes with capitalism

A
  • Traditional conservatives** support Keynesian economic policies which allowed the state to provide full employment **+ protected against the rise of populism
  • Traditional conservatives are reluctant capitalists; capitalism supports property ownership, inequality + hierarchy but laissez-faire economics supports an optimistic view that human nature should be left alone
  • Thus they support a limited form of free-market capitalism known as protectionism where state intervention where the economy is protected** against the excesses of the free-market by imposing tariffs + duties **
57
Q

Explain conservativism’s view on human nature

A
  • Conservatism argues that human nature is flawed + **humans desire more freedom due to their inherent selfishness **
  • Burke criticsed the idea that human nature was guided by reason alone + stresses the importance of** habit, custom + experience** - believed humans were more communal
  • Conservatism’s view of human nature means that they **argue for a decisive + authoritative state to deal with human imperfection **
58
Q

Explain Hobbes key ideas on human nature, the state and economy

A

Traditional Conservative
* Very skeptical view of human nature believed that in the** state of nature humans were ‘solitary,poor, nasty, brutish and short’ before the state emerged
* Hobbes argued that the ‘natural rights’ didn’t exist **before the creation of the state
* Hobbes argued that there needed to be a **formal authority to define right + wrong + to prevent ‘natural chaos’ from ensuing **
* Believed that people would **seek a social contract with the state **- the **state would provide security + order

* Argued for the
state to have autocratic power** + for this power to not be divided up
* Hobbes believed that for the economy to function it requires **order that the strong state would provide **

59
Q

Explain Burke’s key ideas on human nature, society and economy

A

Traditional Conservative
* Believed that humans were imperfect, that they didn’t act with reason + that there was a gap between what people wanted + could achieve **
* Burke also believed that society was like a plant (
organicism) + so that we should keep the status quo + any changes made should be careful + subtle **
* Burke believed that
society should be looked at in the reality of what it is (empiricism
) + not look at the ideals of what society could be
* Burke also believed that society is made up of **‘little plattons’
(
localism) - which would be largely self-regulating + offer support to their members (nullify the negatives of human nature**)
* Burke supported the existence of elites in society, dismissed equality + argued for **paternalism instead **
* Burke supported free market economics + **laissez-faire economics **

60
Q

Explain Oakeshott’s key ideas about the economy, human nature and society

A

One-Nation Conservative
* Believed that humans were terrible but faliable + that creating a perfect society would be impossible but there was the possibility for improvement
* Favoured a** society of local communities **
* Believed the economy needed to be moderated by the state as otherwise they would be volitile
* Proposed an empirical approach to politics + that **pragmatic trial + error were the best way to achieve results **
* Oakeshott belived that the state’s job is to prevent bad not to create good - the state should **embrace routine + prevent disaster **

61
Q

Explain Rand’s key ideas on human nature, sociey, the state and the economy

A

New Right
* Believed that individuals were the key to the nations success - believed in **‘objectivism’ meaning that people were guided by self-interest **
* Selfishness lead to a better society as everyone strives to be better and achieve self realisation we all help each other
* Rand saw society in terms of atomism - meaning that it’s a collection of individuals - society doesn’t exist as an entity
* Argued for the rolling back of the state + for significant tax cuts - argued for small strong state to have law + order
* Rand wanted **complete freedom in the market **
* Rand was a libertarian economically + on social issues (abortion, homosexuality)

62
Q

Explain Nozick’s key ideas on human nature, sociey, the state and the economy

A

New Right
* Nozick had a** positive view of human nature **belived that **individuals can achieve their full potential **
* Believed the growth of the state was a great threat to individual freedom + that the welfare state was causing a dependacy culture
* Argued for a minarchist state - outsource public services to private companies ‘tax for the most part is theft’ + formal authority is needed
* Argued that society pre-dated the state + that in **society self-sufficient communities would arise **
* Believed the **state should leave people alone economically **but was a liberal on social issues

63
Q

Explain the socialist concept of economic determinism

A
  • Human behaviour is determined by the** economy’s structure **
  • Behaviour will change if the economic system changes to a socialist one emphasing equality + social justice
64
Q

Explain the socialist concept of fraternity

A
  • The capitalist system leads to the exploitation of workers - workers group together against capitalist oppressors
  • Workers (together) can overhaul the capitalist system + replace it with socialism
  • This leads to common ownership of wealth leads to **improved fraternity **
  • Trade unions show how even when** fraternity develops the government show them to be selfish** + turn the rest of the public against them
  • Socialists argue that people aren’t inherently selfish but the **gov + media oppress the unions **
65
Q

Explain the socialist conecpt of collectivism

A
  • Collective human effort is both of greater practical + moral value than the effort of individuals in society + the economy - leads to **better achievement + unity **
  • Acting in solidarity with other people (workers)** strengthens our position when negotiating with management** - e.g collective baragning used by trade unions
  • Clause 4 - Labour Party orginial constitution pushed for industry nationalisation (especially public services) - state control + common ownership
  • Liberalism argues that collectivism leads to the tyranny of the majority
66
Q

Explain the different kinds of socialist groups

A

Social Democrats; Believe that capitalism can be humanised - want small changes to the **capitalist sytem to achieve a fairer distribution **

Democractic Socialists; Believe that change can be achieved on the basis of a mandate through parliamentary elections of a socialist party - **don’t want or support capitalism **

Marxists; Believe that capitalism must be overthrown through a violent revolution + replaced with communism - **utopian end-point through a proletariat government **

67
Q

Explain the socialist concept of common humanity

A
  • Humans are social creatures with a tendancy to** cooperation + rationality** as the individual cannot be understood without reference to society as human behaviour is socially determined
  • Human nature is malleable + can be changed by the economic system - capitalism brings the worst out of humans
  • Socialism leads to better, common humanity as we’re social creatures who cooperate to **achieve ‘common good’ **- **no natural hierarchy **
68
Q

Explain the socialist concept of equality

A
  • Socialism is focused on more **equal ditribution of wealth + income **
  • Liberals + conservatives are more focused on equality of opportunity rather than **equal distribution of wealth **

Socialist Democracts; **progressive taxes + benefits to redistribute income **
Democratic Socialists; state run industries + backed up by elected socialist politicans
Marxists; **classless society + overthrowing of capitalism **

69
Q

Explain socalist beliefs on social class

A
  • Bourgeoisie ae incentivised to pay low wages to workers - earn more profit
  • Workers who** refuse the low wages** will be replaced by the ‘reserve army’ of workers
  • Socalists argued that a **classless society in which privilege **+ wealth aren’t ascribed
  • State’s role is decisive + to dismantle barriers to ensure equality of outcome - can have positive impact (NHS)
  • Barriers such as post-code lottery, racism, sexism etc
70
Q

Explain what worker’s control is and who advocates for it

A
  • **Democratic socialists **advocate for worker’s control
    1. Ensures a more equitable distribution of economic resources - decisions will be taken for the benefit of all members of the workforce not just shareholders + CEO
    2. Worker’s control will **abolish class distinctions **
71
Q

Define Common Ownership, Marx’s Communism and Fundementalist Socialism

A
  • **Common Ownership **= method of ownership conducive to equality + fraternity linked to state ownership
  • Marx + Communism = expounded by Marx + seen as the ultimate stage of **human development **- **perfect society **based on communal ownership
  • Fundementalist socialism = early form of socialism asserted by Marx + Engels hold that **socialist values are fundementally incompatible with capitalism **
72
Q

Define Evolutionary socialism, Utopian socialism and Fraternity + Cooperation

A
  • Evolutionary socialism = rejection of revolutionary socialism + a belief that socialsm can be achieved peacefully + gradually through **democratic + constitutional means **

* Utopian socialism = earliest form of socialism one based on the vision of the perfect human existance linked to Robert Owen

  • Fraternity + Cooperation = human relationships should be marked by** generosity + cooperation** rather than competition - should be the norm
73
Q

Define Social justice, Dialectics and Democractic centralism

A
  • Social justice = goes further than legal + formal equality by guaranteeing equality of opportunity - requiring education, healthcare etc
  • Dialectics = associated with philosopher Hegel refers to the clash of ideas that take place in **each ‘stage’ of history **
  • Democratic centralism = referred to a one-party state + democracy that would take place within that party - **party’s decision would be final **
74
Q

Define Historical materalism and Revisionist socialism

A
  • Historical Materalism = refers to Marx + Engles’s view that **each ‘stage’ of history **was defined by a clash of economic ideas regarding the distribution of resources
  • Revisionist socialism = a form of evolutionary socialism that believes that socialism can only be achieved through the **destruction of capitalism + private property **- in a **violent revolution **
75
Q

Explain key socialist views on the state

A
  • Socialism advocates for a strong state - necessary for a** fair + more equal society** as it can ensure **social justice **+ **equal distribution of resources **
  • Reject the monarchical, theocratic or aristocratic state - socialist state must govern in the interests of all social classes = must be democratic
  • Extensive public servies - such as** health + education** to help the less fortunate. State regulation to **help workers e.g mnimum wage, equal pay + maternity/paternity pay **
  • More state ownership - Labour’s Clause IV in their 1918 constitution + the **1945 government nationalising industies **e.g **coal, iron, steel + transport **
  • Needed to** transition from a capitalist state to a communist state** - Marx argued that eventually the state would ‘wither away’ by a completely collectivised society ‘ the end of history’
76
Q

Explain key socialist views on the economy

A
  • Reject laissez-faire capitalism + more collectivism =** progressive tax system + progressive public spending **(state’s resources spent on the less fortunate)*
  • The economy should cater for greater worker’s control in **employment + redistribution **
  • Socialists argue that it isn’t enough to ameliorate the condition of the poorest in society as it **won’t narrow the gap between rich + poor **which leads to a greedy society rather than a cooperative one
  • Socialists argue that equality of opportunity is stopped from happening due to **social class division **determined by the economy - so its structure must be changed to address inequality
  • **Private property ownership + free-market capitalism **leads to greed - socialists argue for an economy based on **common ownerhsip **to lead to **positive qualities among humans
    **
77
Q

Explain key socialist views on society

A
  • Believe in equality of outcome due to inherent inequality due to class - view liberal ideas of foundational equality + equality of opportunity are inadequate due to the **economic disparity between classess **
  • Advocate for social justice + the **equal distribution of resources **
  • Believe that inequality of outcome leads to inequality of opportunity in the next generation - indivuduals born in lower social classess will have **less opportunities **
  • Socialists argue that equality of outcome cannot be achieved until we have values such as **self-determination + foundational equality **
  • Believe that **individual’s social class determine **their prospects + status - as social classes tend to be unequal in terms of power, influence + income
78
Q

Explain key socialist views on human nature

A
  • Socialists believe that human nature isn’t fixed but is malleable - it can be adjusted to ensure that humans achieve their true, cooperative nature - reject liberal view that people can be masters of their own destiny
  • Optimistic view of human nature - socialists believe that individuals are naturally cooperative, generous + altruistic - humans seek solidarity, fraternity + comradeship
  • Believe that societal forces can shape individuals - for Marx + Engle’s these societal forces are primarily economic in nature e.g. **distribution of resources determine **both the **nature of society **+ **human behaviour **
79
Q

Explain evolutionary socialism

A
  • Mandate from the people via a parliamentary election - opposite + a rejection of revolutionary socialism
  • Gradual changes to transition to socialism + no violent revolution
  • Emphaises nationalism, centralism,protectionism + worker cooparations
  • Linked to the Fabian Society
80
Q

Explain revolutionary socialism

A
  • Believe that the state always serves the interests of the ruling class
  • Socialism has to be brought in by overthrowing the existing political + societal structures
  • Doesn’t believe in democracy that constantly lies to people
  • **Class consciousness **of the proletariat eventually realise they’re being exploited
  • They’ll be a** short-lived dictatorship **+ then the collapse of capitalism
  • Class conflict will lead to an ‘end of history’ + a communist society
  • This revolution hasn’t occurred due to false consciousness
81
Q

Explain third-way socialism

A
  • Middle-ground alternative route to socialism + free-market capitalism
  • Centre-left approach advoactes for a balance between rights + duties and social justice
  • Strong emphasis on stakeholding (not shareholder or profit)
  • Communitarianism - empahsises the interests of communities over those of individuals + seeks to give** new strength to social democracy **
82
Q

Explain the beliefs of social democracts

A
  • State should be **limited somewhat to retain personal freedoms **
  • Argue for a mixed economy, comprehensive education + progressive taxation
  • Role of the state - **significant level of state intervention **- private sector for innovation + dynamism
  • Argue for** increased progressive taxation** + free at the point of use services
  • Believe that **capitalism can be humanised **
83
Q

Explain the beliefs of democratic socialism

A
  • Believe that the state can direct resources more effectively than capitalism
  • Full scale nationalisation + worker co-operatives
    **Dominant role for the state in the economy ** - very few firms in the private sector
  • Market activity should be **regulated **
  • **Significant redistribution via extensive progressive tax **
84
Q

Explain revisionism and it’s key beliefs

A
  • Revisionism - those who modified Marxism is some manner without rejecting its argument
  • *Positive view - **keep Marxism ‘alive’ in a modern content **
    ** Negative view
    - ‘selling out’ of core socialist principles
85
Q

Explain social justice and what it means

A
  • Social justice = best possible allocation of resources based upon a subjective judgement to what’s fair - **more egalitarian society **
  1. **Equality of wealth ditribution **
  2. In the UK linked with a **mixed economy **
  3. John Rawls - ‘veil of ignorance’ - try + thinl of how fair something is to disadvantaged people
86
Q

Explain Marxism and its key ideas

A
  • Marx outlined a **utopian society centered upon common ownership **
  • **Classless society **which would mean **poverty + social ills wouldn’t exist
    **
  • Communism = provide a abundance of goods + services a production would be greater than under capitalism
  • The working week would be greatly reduced + the **w/c wouldn’t be exploited **
87
Q

Explain Marx + Engles key views on the revolution + how it should function

A

Revolutionary Socialists
* Social class can be distinguished on the **basis of the means of production **
* The proletariat will rise up in revolution againt the bourgeoisise in class conflict

  • There will be a short-lived ‘dictatorship of the proletariat’ whilist communism is established
  • **Revolution = ‘end of history’ **+ a classless society
  • Engles - **class conflict **was inevitable as the **ruiling class **would resist demands for radical social change
  • Argues for a bloodly revoultion to establish a classless society + favoured utopian socialism
88
Q

Explain Webb’s key views on revolution, the state and society

A
    • Evolutionary socialists* - **expanion of the state not overthrowing it **
  • Argued for an incremental growth of socialism rather than influence - criticised for supporting Stanlist Russia
  • Wanted a **large expansion of the state - through common ownership **of the means of production, distribution + exchange
  • Advocated for the ‘welfare state’ + the term collective baragaining for trade unions - everyone’s improves + there is a larger threat of workers working together
89
Q

Explain Luxemborg’s key views on revolution and how it should occur

A

*Revolutionary Socialists *
* Believed evolutionary socialism was insufficient as capitalism was built upon the exploitation of the w/c
* Needed to be a revolution based on class consciousnes was concerned about the risk of dictatorship following socialist revolution - criticsed Lenin + social democracy
* Had some libertarian belief - supported freedom + was a feminist

90
Q

Explain Crossland’s key views

A

Social Democract
* Agreed with the post-war consensus believing that socialism adapts to new circumstances
* Strong advoacte for ending poverty - interested in improving **w/c people’s lives **through the welfare state + public services
* Wasn’t interested in nationalism + was a revisionist of Marxism
* Implemented education reforms (comprehensive education)
* Challenged Webb’s view of ‘top down’ bureaucratic + centralising socialism with a more liberal view

91
Q

Explain Giddens key views on the state’s role and the economy

A

Third Way
* Role of the State - improve social + physical infrastructure + **improve education provision **
* Rejection of State Intervention - the welfare system would be restructured to give people ‘ a hand-up not a hand-out’:
1. **All welfare states = dependancy + fraud **
2. Welfare payments must be tied appropriate behaviour with **sanctions on those who act irresponsibly **
3. Those who require support need to **escape the poverty trap/cycle **

  • Supported **free-market theory **- innovation + entrepreneurship - equality of opportunity NOT outcome
92
Q

Explain Marx + Engles key views on human nature + religion

A

*Revolutionary Socialists *
* Human nature - capitalism dissolves meaningful relationhips between humans + the entiments which hold society together
* Human spirit is** ‘cooroded’ by commodification **e.g the treatment of workers

  • Religion - spirtuality is used to convince people that deep-seated problems will be thwarted by religion
  • **Religion justifies capitalism **for the bourgeoisie
93
Q

Explain Marx + Engles key views on economy and how it should be structured

A
  • Capitalists extract the minimum level of surplus value (profit) from workers due to the existance of a reserve army of labour - workers have to unwillingly **accept low wages or be replaced **by someone else
  • Economy - replacing capitalism (based on private ownership) with a **collective system (communism) **= fairer system in which natural humanity would flourish
  • Fraternity generated by an equitable distribution of wealth - free us of the environmental destructiveness + consumerism of the capitalist economic system
94
Q

Explaim Giddens key view on globalisation + society

A

Third Way
* Globalisation + improved communications can be beneficial - leads to** ‘high opportunity high risk’ **
* Too complex to have an all-encompassing political ideology - rather incremental changes
* Future society should be more ‘socialised’, green + demilitarised