Global Media Flashcards
______media has played a vital role in enhancing globalization as it linked societies closer, with the exchange of ideas, culture, and multiple information.
It has managed to do so with the help of_____.
International mass
capitalism
three major analytical perspectives of globalization that developed in the field of international communications._______ (1996, as cited in Rantanen, 2005) defined three models that emerged in three subsequent phases: (3)
Sreberny
1) communications and development,
2) cultural imperialism, and
3) cultural pluralism
views media as instruments of change in developing countries with its capacity to its capacity to alter values and attitudes towards modernization.
communications and development model
asserts an uneven relationship in the flow of ‘hardware’ transfer of technology and media alongside the ‘software’ transfer of cultural products that contribute to the dependency on the part of the developing countries to developed countries
cultural imperialism
asserts a more optimistic view on the diversity of global media relations, constitute by a variety of producers and locales
cultural pluralism
The post-______period would mark the prominence of the models of development through mass media and the free flow of information, particularly under the leadership of the United States.
World War II
Several scholars term the models of________(Rantanen, 2005) as the modernization which views that the reason for the paradigm absence of modernization in the developing world is not due to the lack natural resources
communications and development
The primary hindrance to a country’s development is the lack of human resources, and education and mass media would have the fundamental tasks of building human capital (Melkote & Steeves, 2001).
communications and development
_______were viewed to play critical roles in development in the modernization paradigm.
Mass media
________ one of the pioneering scholars of this paradigm, observed a positive association between communication components to that of the social, political and economic components in national growth.
Wilbur Schramm
According to him, “the task of the mass media of information and the “new media” of education is to speed and ease the long, slow social transformation required for economic development and, in particular, to speed and smooth the task of mobilizing human resources behind the national effort”
Wilbur Schramm
Another key proponent of modernization is _______ who proposed that developing societies must follow the Western concept of modernity in order to achieve development.
David Lerner (1958)
He emphasized the importance of empathy, stating that “as people are more exposed to media, the greater is their capability to imagine themselves as strange persons in strange situations, places and time than did people in any previous historical epoch”
David Lerner (1958)
The psychological mechanism of empathy, he argued, enables people to mobilize efficiently in a modern society that is participant, literate and urban, contrary to that of the traditional society which is non-participant.
David Lerner
Lerner
posited that _____ has the power to foster the learning of empathic skills.
The interactive and integrative capabilities of media that prevent societal disintegration are critical to the success of efforts to modernize
mass media
He emphasized the role of printed communication and capitalism in instilling nationalism and the sense of belongingness among people who do not know each other, by creating imagined communities.
Benedict Anderson’s (1983)
whose ideas were influenced by Lerner, espoused the same paradigm but forwards a nuanced relationship by treating mass media as a factor that intervenes between antecedents and consequences of modernization.
In his theoretical model, the socioeconomic antecedents would determine the capacity of mass media exposure to result to the indicators of modernization
Everett Rogers (1965-1966)
The presence of_____ in societies have been observed by modernization scholars as correlated to the social, economic, and political indices of development
mass media
The strength and power of ______to influence societies lies in its “one-way, top-down and simultaneous and wide dissemination” and its capacity to shape social processes, create meanings, identities, and aspirations of a community
mass media
laid down the criticisms of the paradigm of how the governments espousing the Western model of modernization used the media system in sustaining control over the population rather than promoting education for democracy.
They also stated how the national development model was used to justify the arbitrary exercised of political power, political indoctrination and the restriction over the freedom of expression.
Curran and Park (2005)
By the end of the______, criticisms against the modernization paradigm grew in strength and influence questioning the assumptions and conceptualization of the paradigm especially in the context of non-Western and developing societies.
This period would mark the shift to the________ paradigm, seen as a reaction of resistance of the developing world towards the damaging effects of US hegemony and liberal expansionism during the Cold War.
1970s
cultural imperialism
grew in influence from the 1960s to the 1980s in the context of Cold War and the period of decolonization and post- colonialism
cultural imperialism paradigm
Third World countries formed the _______ movement with a united purpose stated in the NonAligned Countries Declaration of 1979, also known as the______ declaration :
the common struggle against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, expansionism, racism, including Zionism, apartheid, exploitation, power politics and all forms and manifestations of foreign occupation, domination, and hegemony.
Non-Aligned Movement
Havana Declaration
The movement was also against the uneven flows of information associated with uneven development through the pretense of the free flow of information and the freedom of expression. In actuality, it “meant “free-market” expression, meaning those who owned the media had the right to decide what was expressed in it”
Cultural imperialism
argues that global audiences are exposed to media messages dominantly deriving from Western industrialized states
Cultural imperialism theory
_________(1976), the clearest and most influential theorists of the cultural imperialism tradition (Sparks, 2012) defines cultural imperialism as:
the concept of cultural imperialism today best describes the sum of the processes by which a society is brought into the modern world system and how its dominating stratum is attracted, pressured, forced and sometimes bribed into shaping social institutions to correspond to, or even promote, the values and structures of the dominating centre of the system.
Herbert Schiller
The theory takes on a macro-perspective of global power dynamics and struggles among state economic relations, particularly the concentration of control and resources at the expense of the development of the rest of the world
Cultural imperialism
The concepts _____ and _____have minor differences but most of the international communication literature considers the latter as a category of the former (Kraidy, 2002).
“cultural imperialism” and “media imperialism”
Media imperialism is defined by_____
The process whereby the ownership, structure, distribution or content of the media in any one country are singly or together are subject to substantial external pressures from the media interests of any other country or countries without proportionate reciprocation of influence by the country so affected
Boyd-Barret (1977)
views modern communication media has having been designed to maintain and expand dependence and domination over the world (Fejes, 1981).
Media imperialism model
It is a stark contradiction to the assumptions of the modernization paradigm that sees communications media as tools for development.
Media imperialism
______ and ______ approaches, together with its variant concepts of “cultural dependency” and electronic colonialism” view_____ as an instrument of major powers that serve as an obstacle to steady progress between developed and developing world (Fejes, 1981).
Cultural and media imperialism
media
According to Hesmondhalgh (2005), the concept of______ means “building of empires” however the use of the term________ implies that with the end of the age of direct political and economic control by colonial states, a new form of indirect power and concern has emerged
imperialism
cultural imperialism
______domination over less-developed countries that would foster desires for Western lifestyles and products among post-colonial societies that would pave the way for the entry of Western- based transnational corporations that would then dominate non-Western economies
Cultural
He employs a ________perspective in viewing media as cultural industries those who own the capital and infrastructure and exert political control determine the messages produced and the cultural products exported, which in turn dictates the western socio-cultural norms and values of liberalism and capitalist consumerism to exacerbated is weaker and poorer states.
political economy
The_______ dominance in news broadcasting, specifically of international agencies such as Reuters, AFP, UPI, and AP, have been viewed by scholars as contributory to the spreading of biased images and prejudices of colonialism towards the South and reducing nations as places of “____________”
Western
corruption, coup and disaster
The limited agencies that serve as limited sources for international news have been accused of contributing to the_________ of global culture that privileges______ interests and values and of influencing perceptions of national governments by bringing global issues to the local level and vice-versa
homogenization
Western
World’s largest media company
According to________’s (as cited in Richter, 2016) annual global of the largest media companies in the world.
______remains to be the most important advertising medium, but it is now followed by______ which has replaced______ as the second.
Zenith Optemedia
Television
internet
print media
___________has been on the rise, with five digital companies –(5)- included in the Top 30 and representing 65 percent of the entire internet advertising market, and accounting for more than a third of the revenues of the largest media owners listed in the top 30.
Digital advertising
Google, Facebook, Baidu, Yahoo, and Microsoft
The contributions of media imperialism scholars such as______ served as a foundation to an international campaign directed towards the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), to demand change in its communication policies with the goal of balancing the relationship between the New developed and developing states
Schiller
In the 1970s and 1980s, ___________debate was the central concern at the UNESCO.
Representatives from developing nations forming the Non-Aligned Movement during the _______ demanded significant changes in international communications media in the current world order which they accused of “neocolonialism” and “cultural imperialism” by the West and their transnational corporations
World Information and Communication Order (NWICO)
Cold War
The______ movement was a collective resistance to pressure UNESCO to change the dynamics of news media that has been dismissive of the interest and needs of the less affluent world, to change the “one-way flow” of news, media, and cultural products between the North and South to a “_____” flow
NWICO
two-way
The political struggle among developing nations was initially a struggle for a “________,” alongside the similar call for a “_________,” which symbolizes the South’s resistance against the symbolic and economic effects of imperialism
New International Information Order
New International Economic Order
The NWICO movement resulted to the report of the MacBride Commission entitled__________(UNESCO, 1980), which forwarded recommendations that aimed to promote independence, diversity, and pluralism of media and to strengthen the national media of the South
Many Voices, One World
The report of McBride Commission aimed to address the problems of the unequal access and flows of communication due to _______
However, the recommendations were fruitless and were perceived as failures; moreover, major powers such as the United States and the United Kingdom opposed the requests and withdrew from UNESCO but eventually rejoined
media commercialization and concentration.
The movement had been incoherent in its critique of the structural inequalities derived from the power struggles between the North and South that significantly limited human communication.
Moreover, the movement had been tainted with the strategic political alliances with authoritarian leaders who sought regulation of the media to repress and silence the opposition
NWICO movement
He emphasized that “a critical project that recognised only those abuses committed by corporate and business interests while remaining blind to those of repressive states could never expect to win general acceptance at a theoretical level”
Sparks
its ambiguity and extensiveness which poses the question of what exactly constitutes cultural imperialism in the unequal cultural exchanges of countries (Sparks, 2012).
The paradigm has also been criticized of romanticizing the national as an agent of resistance that is worth protecting while failing take into account that the state could be as oppressive and homogenizing (through nationalism) to societies as the global (Rantanen, 2005)
Cultural imperialism
Said that the cultural imperialism argument that is framed in terms of ‘centres’ with power over disempowered ‘peripheries’ may have to be reevaluated as the ‘new’ media slowly penetrate into developing nations
Sengupta and Frith
_____ and _____ have provided new and creative opportunities to establish bonds and solidarity in creating cultural communities (Ang 1990).
This change has been apparent in remarkable historical events where new media was used by marginalized to instigate social change such as in the case of the Zapatista Uprising in 1994 against the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Battle of Seattle protests during the World Trade Ministerial Conference of 1999.
Transnational communication system and new media
(1999) a staunch critic of the theory (cultural imperialism), maintains its relevance as it highlights the expansionist nature of capitalism and its capacity to shape global culture
Tomlinson
(2005) sees the strength of the cultural imperialism paradigm through its macro-level analysis that is based on the uneven and asymmetrical political, economic relations of the world system, and the implication of such in for Amounts developing societies.
Rantanen
(2012) have updated and improved the cultural imperialism framework into the current context of intensifying media concentration, expansion of influence and control of transnational media corporations, and widening of gaps between the North and South.
He examines the theoretical ambiguity of Schiller’s conceptualization and proposes a new alternative that does not suffer the same crippling flaws of the classical account and a superior theoretical account of the contemporary developments in international communication.
Sparks
reconsidered the concept of imperialism, with the driving force not being limited to a single state but conflict and competition among large-scale capitalism which is allied with their home states.
Instead of a single center, an array of competing states of varying powers and influence compete and in some instances coordinate their political and economic power to exert control over less developed and weaker countries (_______, 2012).
Sparks
: Transition from homogenization to heterogenization
Cultural Pluralism
Criticisms against the cultural imperialism paradigm would eventually pave the way for the emergence of a new paradigm termed____
cultural pluralism
Cultural pluralism also known as
cultural globalization”
The paradigm shift was a departure from the “one-way” model of cultural imperialism towards a more nuanced and sophisticated analysis of “multidirectional flows” among country relations (Matos, 2012).
It was a reaction to the treatment of the paradigms of modernization and cultural imperialism to the role of the audience as passive receptacles of information and ideas.
Cultural pluralism
This shift in paradigms would be regarded by Rantanen (2005) as the ________ debate (see Table 6.2), with the past two paradigms, the development, and imperialism approach as being under the homogenization school with their assumptions on the impact of globalization on media and cultures.
homogenization-heterogenization
The______, on the other hand, is anchored on the definitions of globalization as hybridization, synchronization, re-territorialization, and indigenization
heterogenization school
The _______has also been criticized in several aspects.
Sparks (2012) describes the new orthodoxy as “systematically marginaliz[ing] the role of the state,” as pervasively seen from the slogans of “think global, act local” and “glocalization”
heterogenization school
Criticisms of _______ have also been enumerated by Rantanen (2012), such as
the power it provides the audiences without taking into account the inequality their access to media and communications
neglect of the economic clout of global media firms concentration in the United States.
Studies would also present empirical evidence that is not reflective of the assumptions of the paradigm
heterogenization school
