Global Climate Governance Flashcards
Why is global environmental governance distinct?
- Importance of ‘‘epistemic communities’’ (scientific knowledge needs to be translated into the political realm)
- wide range of issues
- non-cooperation can actively undermine cooperation
- connected to human rights, economy and security
what is meant by the tradegy of the commons?
if we don’t all harvest in a sustainable manner, the overall global system will be harmed
if one country decides to exploit, there is less for others
How do individual theoretical perspectives help us explain cooperation in the field?
- neo realism
role of hegemon (how they use their power to influence cooperation according to their interests)
likelihood for cooperation increases with environmental problems being conceived as a security threat (threat multiplier)
How do individual theoretical perspectives help us explain cooperation in the field?
- neo-institutionalism
interdependence: environmental problems cross borders with effects on powerful states
cooperation helps to maximize gains; reduce costs
How do individual theoretical perspectives help us explain cooperation in the field?
- liberalism
domestic pressure through civil society (domestic institutions + processes shape state behavior)
How do individual theoretical perspectives help us explain cooperation in the field?
- constructivism
- norms: ecological integrity, identity of a ‘‘good state’’
- environmental activists as norm entrepreneurs
- autonomous effects on institutions (institutions influence states’ behavior)
global governance
characteristics
the sum of the informal and formal ideas, values, norms, procedures, and institutions that help all actors (states, NGOs, civil society, and TNC) to identify, understand, and address trans-boundary problems
evolving global environmental governance
increasing range of participating non-state actors
not enough to talk about inter state relations, there are more actors that shape the field
article by Kuyper talks about how the interplay between states and non-state actors cooperate (hybrid structure)
what does the inclusion of civil society achieve?
high degree of legitimacy
core inter-state organization in the field
UNEP
UNEP
Result of the Stockholm conference in 1972, convened by the UNGA at the initiative of the government of Sweden (front runner sustainability)
Is UNEP independent?
no, it’s a subsidiary body to the GA:
- no own treaty
- no own membership
- not much independence in what the organization can do with funding
UNEP budget
95% voluntary contributions
- voluntary indicative scale to make sure that all countries can commit to a contribution that is in relation to their economic strength/size
5% of expenses covered by the UN general budget
main contributors: Norway, Netherlands, France
US and Belgium have not yet payed their pledged contributions for 2023
location/seat/headquarters UNEP
+ goal
+ implications
Nairobi, Kenya
- inclusion global south
- logistic problems: away from other organizations
What does UNEP do?
tasks 4
support governments in trying to regulate the environment globally
- support of multilateral environmental agreements (helps draft + monitor)
- facilitate negotiations and development of international environmental law
- support of national implementation (capacity development, e.g. through Global Environment Facility)
- scientific advise
lack of compliance in this field
not always because of willingness, often because of inability
*UNEP helps
important mulitlateral environmental agreements (supported by UNEP)
4
Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
UNEP - limitations (structural/design)
4
- size/funding type pose limitation on what the organization can do, it is dependent (e.g. on voluntary contributions)
- structure (subsidiary program, nog specialized agency)
- lack of enforcement power (only shaming
- logistics/location (away from other IOs -> difficult cooperation + hard to get staff)
voluntary contributions UNEP
make it conditional + impedes independency
now more and more conditions attached to voluntary funding making it more stable
why does UNEP often get neglected?
operates in the background
Montreal Protocol
/ ozone regime
ozone
Kofi Annan: perhaps the most successful international agreement
Use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) in refrigeration, hairsprays, deodorants etc.
- scientific data confirming ozone depletion in 1975
- impact on health and genes
pressure of non-state actors, civil society movements
governing council of UNEP working party to design a draft convention ->
1985 Vienna convention: cooperation on research and data acquisition, signed by 22 states
1987 Montreal Conference: Montreal Protocol
- phase out CFC
later on more conferences to act quicker than suggested/planned in the Montreal Protocol
- developing countries got more time
Montreal Protocol and UNEP
UNEP took a lead role: designing, implementing, agreement
reasons for success Montreal Protocol
7
- actors: strong coalition led by powerful states (realist perspective)
- epistemic communities with high legitimacy
- domestic pressure (specifically in the US)
- hegemonic leadership: US threatened to ban EU products -> Eu changed position from resistance to agreement on CFC bans
- concessions to developing countries -> acceptance
- (rather easy) technical solution: invention of chemical replacement for CFCs
*not so easy in other areas of global climate governance - (strong) compliance monitoring: annual reports by states to UNEP secretariat (+ by NGOs and rising green parties)
Toronto group
US, Canada, Scandinavian states
dilemma climate governance
+ problem climate
why should we care
long term ecological vs. short-term economic interests
problems: average temperature has increased by 0.8 degrees Celsius since 1880 due to greenhouse gas emissions (2/3 of the warming since 1975)
- rising sea levels
- extreme weathers
- deteriorating food, water and living conditions
IPCC
international panel on climate change
issues annual reports on the progress of climate change
global climate governance: failure?
initial steps toward an agreement
1988 Toronto Conference on the Changing Atmosphere: demand for an international convention, foundation of the IPCC by UNEP and WMO
*didn’t lead to concrete convention
1990 Washington (convened by UNEP): clear divide EU/AOSIS - US / OPEC
International Negotiating Committee set up by UNGA 1990 -> preparation of a framework convention
1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change, signed by 150 states at the Rio Conference (earth summit): commitment to return to 1990 levels of emissions
AOSIS
association for small island states
Paris agreement
2016 structures legal commitments of states on fighting climate change
195/198 Parties ratified the agreement
- commitment to restrict increase of temperature to well below 2 degrees (1.5 degrees in the long term) (now debate if this is possible)
- recognize that compliance can only be achieved if all the states agree ->
- NDCs: nationally determined contributions (bottom up: nations should show what they want to do / are gonna do)
- financial assistance to developing countries to reduce emissions and build resilience
- capacity-building framework for developing countries
important achievements Paris Agremeent
5
- legally binding
- global application
- core obligations but flexible approach (NDCs)
- review every 5 years: regular monitoring implementation (lot of NGOs and civil society actors involved)
- new model governance (Hybrid): bottom-up, facilitative regime
–> new level of organization that anchors commitments from sub- and non-state actors
ASEAN and climate
challenges 4
environmental problem
actions
scepticism
challenges:
- non-intervention principle
- members diverse levels of development
- different priority (eco)
- lack capability to monitor and implement
one of the most environmentally fragile regions:
- haze problem: deforestation Indonesia -> emissions + toxic gasses
2003 environmental goals as effort to create the ASEAN community
2007 Singapore Declaration on Climate Change
scepticism if states will be committed
NAFTA and climate
- each country own policies + product bans
- North American Commission for environmental cooperation (alongside border Mexico is bilateral, so not included)
- WB international Centre for settlement of investment disputes handles right to sue host government
EU and climate
- focus on poluter pays + preventative actions
- mandatory environmental impact assessments
- forcing members to have specific regulations
- EU eco-labels
- 1993 European Environment Agency (Commission’s Directorate-General for the Environment)
- European Court of Justice pushes for environmental regulations
- problems = political differences and implementation issues
! 2004 enlargement process = biggest achievement: forced EU environmental standards on a number of states
public-private partnerships
- important for funding
- engage nonstate actors
- form of hybridization
GATT/WTO and the environmental regime
- fear environmental policies would constrain free/stable market
- 1994 recognition sustainable development: e.g. states can ban products that are harmful
- WTO committee on trade and development (clarify relationship multilateral environmental agreements and WTO rules + protect market access for developing countries + adress legality of eco-labeling)
Global Environmental Facility (GEF)
- 1991
- funder environmental projects low- and middle income states
- 183 members (plenary body = assembly)
- council of 32 states (developing, developed and former soviet countries)
UNEP criticism
- absence from the climate change debate
- inability to coordinate + harmonize
- inability to respond to the needs of states
UNEP upgrade
2013
became the
UN Environment Assembly
(universal membership to strengthen representation)
international environmental institutions
- legacy of UN sponsored conferences
- key roles: standard setting, helping promote environmental law, monitor + participate in negotiations
binding environmental principles in international law
- no significant harm (to others + environment)
- good neighbor cooperation (when environmental problems occur)
non-binding environmental principles in international law
- polluter pays principle
- precautionary principle (scientific warning -> action)
- preventative action principle
- sustainable development and intergenerational equity
UN Global Conferences on climate change
- 1972 Conference on the Human Environment (UNCHE/Stockholm): calls for coordination, recognition of obligations + pushes for institutionalization
- 1983 World Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland commission): acknowledgment role/responsibilities and economic development of the global south
- 1992 UNCED: UN Conference on Environment and development (World Summit Rio): state sovereignty over resources v. obligation to protect biological diversity + led to UNFCCC, Agenda 21, UN convention on biodiversity + NGOs played a big role + gradual greening WB and GATT
- 2002 UN World Summit on Sustainable Development Johannesburg (Rio plus 10): make world Summit Rio concrete and implementable
- 2012 UN Conference of Sustainable Development Reconvened (Rio plus 20): forced states to adopt agendas, socialized new norms of behavior and brought together different actors to learn from each other
- 2015 Agenda 2030 (Sustainable Development Goals)
COP
conference of parties (decision-making UNFCCC)
alliance of small island states
- no formal institutions
- works through UN missions
- 44 state ambassadors take/make decisions
Kyoto protocol 2005
- goal: stabelise concentration of greenhouse gasses
- norm of common bt differentiated responsibility
- challenges: major contributors (China, India and the US) have to get on board + debate North-South divide and responsibility
Hybrid multilateralism
combines state and non-state actors
Paris Agreement 2016
*built upon UNFCCC
hybrid multilateralism:
- state-led action defined through NDC’s (non-state actors as watchdogs)
- orchestration transnational climate efforts (non-state actors as contributors)
orchestration efforts
attempts by multilateral actors to steer the efforts of other state and non-state actors through soft power
how can non-state actors contribute in the UNFCCC
- through/in party delegations (functional efficiency hypothesis: states only allow participation when it suits their interests)
- constituency system: attend COPs and intersessionals through joining a constituency group
- side events ad exhibition boots (forum function)
minilateralism
limiting the number of negotiaing states to make agreement more tractable,
- Easier agreement if there is a preference overlap
- legitimacy: main contributors to climate change
- club-based model: more action + less veto
when did the Paris Agreement come into force?
4 nov 2016
- 55 countries that together contribute more than 55% of the emmissions
top-down v. bottom-up
top-down = relative authority makes decisions of demand/control
bottom-up = action from target groups intended to make others implement a policy (voluntarily)
Non-state actors influence in the Paris Agreement / UNFCCC creates:
justice
- agency
- access
- allocation
Legitimacy
- participation
- representation
- accountability
Effectiveness
- transparency
- compliance
- outcomes
outcomes global environmental regime
- economic effectiveness (influence on the overall economy)
- cost effectiveness
- environmental effectiveness
- non-state actors contribute through emission reduction + monitoring
double-counting
when states have same commitment both in NDCs and orchestration efforts
NDC
nationally determined contribution
- hard to monitor: no general/universal outline
governmentality
non-state actors used in service of government functions
