GI Flashcards
Composition of saliva
Dependent on diet + which glands are stimulated.
- Mucin
- Amylase (omnivores/horses NOT carnivores/ruminants)
- Bicarbonate (neutralisation/buffering)
- Phosphate (ruminants)
- Lysozyme/antibodies (reduce infection)
- Protein-binding tannins (leaf + bud eaters)
- Urea (ruminants
Salivary secretion in non-ruminants
- primary secretion isotonic with blood
- at low flow rates, secretion becomes hypotonic
- at high flow rates secretion remains isotonic
Regulation of salivary secretion
Entirely under neural control
- Sympathetic - reduction in fight or flight
- Parasympathetic - increase during digestion
Basal salivary secretion for oral hygiene.
2 reflex pathways
- Congenital
- Conditioned
Congenital salivary reflex pathway
Initiated by taste/smell/presence of food in mouth
(in ruminants also by distension of orifices and rumination)
- Afferent to salivary centre in brain
- Efferent to salivary glands
Conditioned salivary reflex pathways
Pavlov dog experiments.
Initiated by repeated sensory stimuli associated with feeding
- Sight/smell of food
- Noise
Initiated in cerebral cortex and thence salivary centre in medulla oblongata
Motility
- Segmental contractions - breakdown/mix
- Peristaltic contractions
- Anti-peristaltic contractions
- Mass movement
- Regulation of motility - chewing/initial swallowing/defaecation under voluntary control)
Chemical breakdown
- Secretion of digestive juices
- Salivary glands/liver/pancreas/glands in stomach + intestinal wall
- Digestive juices extensively reabsorbed
Composition of digestive juices
- Ions and pH appropriate for action of digestive enzymes
- Mucus to lubricate food and protect mucosa
- Enzymes to chemically breakdown food.
Enzymes involved in digestion
Carbohydrate:
- amylase, disaccharidases
(saliva/pancreas/intestinal mucosal surface)
Protein:
- pepsin/trypsin/peptidases
(stomach glands/pancreas/intestinal mucosal surface)
Fat:
- lipase, phospholipase
(pancreas/intestinal mucosal surface)
Absorption
- Absorption is selective - most nutrients require specific transporter proteins
- Active transport of nutrients
- Directly by primary active transport
- Indirectly by secondary active transport
- Passive transport of nutrients
- Facilitatively via transporter proteins
- Diffusion down concentration gradient
Layers of the abdominal wall
Skin - can be tough in some species
- Variable cover in hair for insulation.
Subcutaneous fascia - superficial fascia
- Contains adipose (all over in pig, mainly inguinal area in others)
- Contains cutaneous trunk muscle (skin twitch)
Deep fascia (ox, horse)
- Developed into a tough fibro-elastic sheet = yellow abdominal tunic
Muscles
Muscles of the abdominal wall
4 muscles
Lateral (outside to inside):
- External abdominal oblique m.
- Internal abdominal oblique m.
- Transverse abdominal m.
Ventrally:
- Rectus abdominis
Functions of abdominal wall muscles
Encloses the abdominal cavity and its contents.
Motor functions:
- Contraction causes increase in intra-abdominal pressure
(used in vomiting, defaecation and micturition)
- If larynx is closed, also causes increase in intra-thoracic pressure (via diaphragm)
(used in breathing, coughing, sneezing)
Rectus abdominis m.
- Straight abdominal muscle
- 6 pack in humans
- Originates on ventral surface of sternum/sternabrae
- Inserts on cranial border of pubis via pre-pubic tendon
- Left and right sides separated by linea alba
- in immature animal, linea alba is pierced by umbilicus
External oblique abdominal m.
- Outermost lateral abdominal wall muscle
- Originates on lateral caudal surfaces of rubs 4+ and lumbodorsal fascia
- Inserts on linea alba and prepubic tendon
- Fibres run obliquely from cranio-dorsal to caudo-ventral
Internal oblique abdominal m.
- Middle lateral abdominal wall muscle
- Original on coral tuber and lumbodorsal fascia
- Inserts on linea alba, last rib & cartilages of caudal ribs
- Fibres run obliquely from caudo-dorsal to cranio-ventral
Transverse abdominal m.
- Innermost lateral abdominal wall muscle
- Originates on medial surfaces of ventral parts of caudal ribs and deep lumbodorsal fascia
- Inserts on linea alba
- Fibres run transversely
Sheath of Rectus Abdominis m.
- Foremed from the tendons of the lateral abdominal wall muscles
- They pass above/below rectus abdominis m. to join in the midline
- This join is to referred to as “aponeurosis” and forms the linea alba
Innervation
- Innervation by spinal nerves of last thoracic vertebra & L1-L5
- Dorsal roots innervate dorsal musculature
- Ventral roots split into 3 branches
Medial - runs between TA + IAO down to RA
Lateral - runs IAO + EAO down to midway
Lateral cutaneous - perforates EAO to innervate skin
Inguinal canal
- Internal oblique muscle has gap (=deep inguinal ring)
- External oblique muscle has slit (=superficial inguinal ring)
- Inguinal canal = potential space between these 2 slits
- Significance of this will be covered in urogenital fortnight
Embryology of GI tract
- Epithelium lining GI tract & associated exocrine gland = endoderm
- Muscle & connective tissue = splanchnic mesoderm
- As embryo develops part of yolk sac taken into body
- This goes on to form the gut
- Midgut separated from foregut/hindgut by cranial intestinal portals
- Foregut/hindgut end blindly at oral/cloacal plates
- Foregut differentiates into pharynx, oesophagus, stomach nd initial duodenum
- Midgut differentiates into rest of duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum, ascending/transverse colon
- Hindgut differentiates into descending colon and rectum
Peritoneum
- Serous membrane that lines abdominal cavity & envelops abdominal organs
- SIngle continuous sheet
- Parietal peritoneum
- Closely adherent to abdominal wall
- Extends through inguinal canal
- Visceral peritoneum
- Closely adherent to abdominal canal
- Envelops organs
- Connecting peritoneum
- Mesentary - connects bowel to body wall
- Omentum - connects stomach to something
- Fold - connects bowel to bowel
- ligament - connects non-bowel to something
- Parietal peritoneum
Topographical anatomy
The relationship of organs within the abdomen
Defined by the peritoneal attachments - to one-another or body wall
Aids or hinders surgical access - the peritoneum
Cavities
Abdominal cavity
- Defined by diaphragm cranially
- Abdominal wall laterally
- Contains all abdominal organs/structures including peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity
- The potential space between parietal & visceral peritoneum
- Contains nothing other than a small amount of peritoneal fluid - unless peritoneal inflammation = peritonitis
Diaphragm
- Separates thorax from abdomen
- Attaches to body wall at level of last rib
- Extends into thorax to level of 5th inter-costal space
- Aorta passes through aortic hiatus between left + right crura
- Caudal vena cava passes through caval foramen in central tendon
- Oesophagus passes through oesophagus hiatus
Connecting peritoneum
Mesentary - connects bowel to body wall
Omentum - connects stomach to something
Fold - connects bowel to bowel
Ligament - connects non-bowel to something
Liver
4 lobes
- L&R lobes (split into medial and lateral in dogs)
- Caudate
- Caudate process
- Papillary process
- Quadrate
Peritoneal attachments:
- Coronary ligament
- R&L triangular ligaments
- Falciform/round ligament
Gallbladder
- Cystic/hepatic/common bile ducts
Stomach
3 areas:
- Fundus = blind ending
- Corpus = body
- Pylorus (pyloric antrum)
Peritoneal attachments:
- Greater omentum
- Lesser omentum - hepato-gastric ligament
- Gastro-splenic ligament
Spleen
- On LHS of abdomen
- Blood reservoir
- Abnormally enlarged in barbiturate euthanasia
Peritoneal attachments:
- Gastro-splenic ligament
Duodenum
- First part of small intestine
- Exit of bile duct/pancreatic duct on major duodenal papilla
- Exit of accessory duct on minor duodenal papilla
Peritoneal attachments
- Mesoduodenum
- Duodeno-colic fold
- Hepato-duodenal ligament (part of lesser omentum)
Jejunum
- Middle part of small intestine
- Largest proportion of SI
- Covered by greater omentum
Peritoneal attachements:
- Meso-jejunum/mesentary (fan shaped)
Ileum
- Terminal portion of SI
- Enters into LI at caeco-colic junction
Peritoneal attachments:
- Ileo-caecal fold
- Meso-ileum (extension of meso-jejunum)
Pancreas
2 lobes:
- Right lobe running in cranio-caudal direction
- Left lobe running media-laterally
Peritoneal attachments:
- Right lobe within meso-duodenum
- Left lobe within deep leaf of greater omentum
Caecum
- First part of LI
- Blind ending sac
- In dog, ileum runs directly into colon, with caecum attached on side
- In other species, caecum is continuous with colon and ileum enters LI at caeca-colic junction
- NOT the appendix
Peritoneal attachments:
- Ileo-caecal fold
- Caeca-colic fold
Colon
Ascending (right):
- Right colic flexure
- Transverse - passes cranial to root of mesentery
Descending (left):
- Left colic flexure
- Rectum
Peritoneal attachments:
- Meso-colon to dorsal body wall
Enteric nervous system
- Short reflex arcs located within wall of GI tract
- Can operate independently of rest of body
- 2 nerve plexuses that synapse with each other.
- Sensory cells respond to:
- Content of lumen
- Degree of wall stretch
- Motor cells stimulate
- Smooth muscle cells (motility)
- Epithelial cells (digestive juices/hormones)
- Sensory cells respond to:
Enteric nervous system 2
- Simple reflex arc; consists of a single motor neurone
- Complex reflex arcs consist of simple reflex arcs connected by interneurons - nerve impulse is propagated wider.
- Short reflex arcs enable GI tract to have extensive control of its activities
- Most reflexes are stimulatory and cholinergic
Autonomic nervous system
Parasympathetic promotes digestion
- Pre-ganglionic fibres run in vagus (cholinergic)
- Post-ganglionic fibres embedded in wall of GI tract and connect to ENS (cholinergic)
Sympathetic inhibits digestion
- Pre-ganglionic fibres run in splanchic nerves (cholinergic)
- Post-ganglionic fibres run along arteries to organ of innervation or in hypogastric nerves
- Synapse with ENS to reduce Ach release at parasympathetic pre-synapses
- Adrenergic to inhibit secretion + motility and decrease perfusion to GI tract
Autonomic Nervous System 2
- Connection to CNS (sight/smell/taste)
- Entero-enteric reflexes - coordinate activity between different parts of GI tract
Phases of regulation
Cephalic phase:
- Anticipation of food (Pavlov’s)
- Emotion
- Coordinated by ANS
Gastric phase:
- Stomach distension/presence of peptides
- Coordinated by ANS, ENS and hormones (mainly gastrin)
Intestinal phase:
- Intestinal distension/lumen contents
- Coordinated by ANS, ENS and hormones
Regulation of Appetite
- Controlled by hypothalamus
- Appetite centre (ventro-lateral hypothalamus) - has direct effect on animal’s behaviour
- Satiety centre (ventro-medial hypothalamus) - causes refusal of food, inhibits appetite centre
3 theories for mechanism of action:
- Glucostat theory - regulated by levels of glucose
- CCK theory - regulated by levels of CCK
- Lipostat theory - regulated by levels of fat
Motility
Coordinated contraction of smooth muscle in GI tract
1) Segmental
- Mixes lumen contents/breakdown (stomach)
2) Peristalsis
- Moves intestinal contents in gradual aboral direction
3) Anti-peristalsis
- Moves intestinal contents in oral digestion
4) Mass movement
- Empties entire sections of GI tract
Pacemaker cells
Repetetive + spontaneous oscillations (~5/min) in membrane potential occur in groups of pacemaker cells (interstitial cells of Cajal)
- Located between circular + longitudinal smooth muscle
- Synchronisation of smooth muscle contractions achieved by transfer of oscillations to smooth muscle via gap junctions
- If stimulus absent, depolarisation is too weak to reach threshold potential = no muscle contraction
- If stimulus present, depolarisation reaches threshold potential = action potential to cause smooth muscle contraction
- Action potential due to opening of Ca2+ channels
- Frequency of action potentials determines strength of contraction.
Swallowing/deglutition
- Propulsion of food from oral cavity into oesophagus
- Food mould into bolus by tongue and moved upwards and backwards to pharynx
- under voluntary control
- forces soft palette up to seal off nasal cavity
- Pressure-sensitive sensory cells stimulated
- swallowing centre in medulla initiates swallowing reflex
- under involuntary control
- Epiglottis closes off trachea
- Complicated contraction/relaxation of muscles force food into oesophagus
Swallowing disorders
- Failure of soft palette to close off nasal cavity
- Failure of epiglottis to close off trachea
- Pharangeal paralysis
- nerve/muscle injury
- Botulism - clostridial toxins block Ach release
- Myaestheania gravis
- antibodies formed against Ach receptors
- Anaestesia
- may anapestics induce vomiting
- swallowing process impaired
- inhalational pneumonia
Anatomy of the oesophagus
Mucosal layer
- Stratified squamous epithelium
Submucosal layer
Muscular layer
- Inner circular/outer longitudinal
- Composed of striated + smooth muscle
Serial layer
- Adventitia (loose connective tissue) only in neck - slower healing in surgery
True serial layer in thorax
Innervation of the oesophagus
Sympathetic - via cervical sympathetic chain
Parasympathetic
- SVE/AA via recurrent laryngeal (cranial division of XI) to cranial cervical oesophagus
- AE/AA via vagus to caudal cervical/thoracic oesophagus
- species with striated muscle in caudal oesophagus still innervated by parasympathetic
Transport down oesophagus
Upper oesophageal sphincter closes behind food bolus (epiglottis opens to allow breathing)
complicated peristaltic contractions force food down oesophagus - animals can swallow upwards
Lower oesophageal sphincter opens to allow passage of food into stomach
Lower oesophageal sphincter
= Cardiac sphincter
Physiological rather than anatomical - except in horses
always closed except during swallowing
oesophagus enters abdomen at oblique angle
- Higher pressure in abdomen cf thorax causes stomach to exert pressure on diaphragm; reinforcing closure
prevents regurgitation of acidic stomach contents
Vomiting/emesis
Active propulsion of stomach contents into oral cavity.
- Deep inspiration with simultaneous closure of trachea/nasal cavity
- increases intra-abdominal pressure via diaphragm
Forceful contraction of abdominal muscles - NOT gastric muscles
Cardiac sphincter opens
Food propelled up oesophagus
Upper oesophageal sphincter opens
Vomiting/emesis 2
- Controlled by vomiting centre in medulla
- Stimulated by pharyngeal/gastric distension/irritation
- Normal in dogs/cats to expel bones/hair
- Ruminants prefer to regurgitate
Horses/rats
- Very well developed cardiac sphincter
- Exaggerated oblique entry through diaphragm
- Stomach usually ruptures before vomiting occurs
Gastric torsion
- Occurs in horses and wide-chested dogs
- Stomach rotates 90-360°
- Seals off cardiac sphincter; preventing vomiting
- Stomach distends further with gas
- If rotation compromises blood supply, gastric tissue becomes oedematous/hypoxic and necrotic
- Stomach dilation can impair venous return to heart via caudal vena cava resulting in circulatory shock
- Extreme emergency requires surgical intervention
Functional anatomy of simple stomach
Functions:
- Digestion
- Continuation of starch digestion
- Initiation of protein digestion
- Protection
- Stomach acid kills bacteria ingested with food
- Storage
- Ensures food delivered to SI at controlled rate
- Mechanical breakdown/mix
- Breaks food + mixes with gastric juice to form a semi-liquid chyme
Abomasum is ruminant equivalent of simple stomach
Embryological regions of the stomach
Oesophageal region:
- Non-glandular
- Stratified squamous
epithelium
Cardiac region:
- Secretes mucous only
Fundic region:
- Secretes mucous/gastric juice
Pyloric region:
- Secretes mucous only
- Regulates stomach emptying
Anatomical regions of the stomach
Cardia - entrance to stomach
- Physiological valve
Fundus - blind ending part of stomach
Corpus - body of stomach
Pylorus - exit from stomach
Cell types in stomach
Consist of cylindrical glands
Mucous/goblet cells
- Secrete mucous to protect against HCl
Parietal/oxyntic cells
- Secrete HCl to digest protein
Chief/peptic cells
- Secrete pepsinogen to digest protein
Entero-endocrine cells
- Secrete hormones
Motility of the stomach
Serves to:
- Prepare stomach to receive a meal
- Mix and mechanically break down chyme
- Empty stomach contents to SI
- Prevent regurgitation of stomach contents into oesophagus
When an animal starts eating there is an initial relaxation of stomach smooth muscle to accommodate the meal - receptive relaxation
- Regulated by swallowing centre via vagus
- Transmitter = vasoactive intestinal peptide - NOT Ach
Motility of the stomach 2
- Mainly peristalsis
- Start in fundus with weak contractions
- Propagate down corpus
- Pyloric sphincter opens to allow chyme into duodenum
- When contractions reach pylorus, pyloric sphincter closes
- Food forced back into corpus helps mixing
Regulation of stomach emptying
- Mainly regulated by strength of contraction
- Also opening/closing of pyloric sphincter
- Stimulation of emptying
- Neural regulation - expansion of stomach walls increases strength of contraction
- Hormonal regulation - release of gastrin increases strength of contraction and dilates pyloric sphincter
- Inhibition of emptying
- Factors in duodenum act to inhibit gastric contractions
- increased pressure in walls
- Low pH
- High [fat/peptide]
- High osmolarity
- Neural regulation via increased sympathetic activity/decreased parasympathetic activity via vagus
- Hormonal regulation via secretin, cholecystokinin & gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
- Factors in duodenum act to inhibit gastric contractions
Digestion in simple stomach
Enzymatic breakdown of nutrient macromolecules into smaller units that can be absorbed
Starch
- Digested by amylase
- Only active at pH > 6
Protein
- Digested by pepsin
- Only active at low pH
How can both of these enzymes function in the stomach?
Structure of starch
- Complex carbohydrate
- A mixture of amylose and amylopectin
- Basic unit is maltose
- Amylose comprises double helix of maltose units linked by 1-4 ⍺-glycosidic bonds
- Amylopectin comprises of branching chain of maltose units linked by 1-6 ⍺-glycosidic bonds
Amylase can digest ⍺-glycosidic bonds but not β-glycosidic bonds found in cellulose
Starch digestion
- Initiated by salivary amylase in mouth
- BUT food doesn’t spend much time in mouth before it is swallowed
- Newly swallowed food forced into centre of stomach
- Acid secreted from stomach walls
- Gradual decline in pH from centre of stomach to edge that allows starch digestion to continue
Comparative starch digestion
Omnivorous diets contain high levels of starch
- Pigs have adapted stomachs to allow starch digestion to continue longer
Herbivorous diets contain low levels of starch
- Working horse diets have increased levels of starch
- Horses have adapted their stomachs to allow starch digestion to continue longer
Carnivorous diets contain low levels of starch
- Carnivore saliva doesn’t contain amylase (digest starch in SI)
Comparative salivary amylase levels
- High in pigs
- Low in horses as diet usually contains low levels of starch
- Absent in carnivores + ruminants
- Very high in humans as stomach not adapted for starch digestion
Protein digestion
Gastric juice consists mainly of HCl + pepsinogen
- Pepsin is inactive until it comes into contact with foreign protein as organs are made of protein
Pepsinogen must be converted into pepsin before it can digest protein
Stomach mucosa very resistant to digestion
- Breach of mucosal barrier -ulceration
Functions of HCl
Convert inactive pepsinogen into its active form - pepsin
Provides the required acidic environment for pepsin to digest protein
Prevents fermentation by killing microbes
- In pigs/horses some fermentation of starch into VFAs occurs as large part of stomach doesn’t produce acid
Degrades large chunks of connective + muscle tissue into smaller, more digestible parts
Secretion of HCl
Duration and volume depends on species
- Max secretion occurs 2-3 hours after a meal in dogs cf pigs (almost continuous)
HCl secreted by parietal/oxyntic cells
Stomach pH reaches 2.0-2.5
Opposite process occurs in pancreas to neutralise pH of food passing into duodenum
Urine pH increases just after a meal due to delay between food passing from stomach to pancreas
Secretion of pepsinogen
Synthesised + stored in chief/peptic cells
Pepsinogen secreted in inactive form
Activated by HCl in stomach
Pepsin initiates degradation of protein and collagen by breaking peptide links adjacent to aromatic amino acids
- These peptides stimulate further HCl secretion
Pepsin can activate more pepsinogen - auto-catalysis
Stimulation of secretion
Reflex arcs
- Long via vagus
- Short locally
3 substances
- Amplify eachother
- Ach/histamine
- Direct stimulation
- Chief (pepsinogen. parietal (HCl) & mucin cells
Gastrin
- Almost entirely via stimulation of ECL cells to produce histamine
- Mainly parietal cells (HCl)
Cephalic phase
Neural stimulation:
- Before food has entered stomach
- Caused by sight, smell, taste
- Stimulates secretion
- Directly via Ach
- Indirectly via gastrin in blood
Gastric phase
Neural stimulation:
- After food has entered stomach
- Caused by
- Stomach expansion
- Peptides in lumen
- Stimulate secretion
- Directly via Ach
- Indirectly via gastrin in blood
Intestinal Phase
After food has entered duodenum
Stimulation or inhibition
- Depends on acidity of chyme
- Food components
Stimulation via neural (cholinergic) + hormonal signals
- CCK role varies according to species
- Dogs = partial agonist (low H+) or strong antagonist (high H+) cats = strong agonist
Most intestinal responses = inhibitory
Hormonal stimulation
- Mediated by gastrin
- Mainly in response to peptides in stomach
- Reaches target cells via blood
- Maximal HCl secretion requires simultaneous by Ach, histamine and gastrin
- Gastrin mediates its effect almost entirely via stimulation of ECL-cells to release histamine
Inhibition of secretion
Duodenal signals that inhibit stomach motility also inhibit gastric juice secretion
- Hormonal via vagus
- Hormonal
Localised inhibition in stomach too
- pH<2.0 stops gastrin release to protect gastric mucosa from damage
- Before food enters stomach, H+ low but not buffered so gastrin inhibited
- Once food enters stomach with buffers (mainly protein) H+ reduced so gastrin released again
- More protein in diet –> more gastrin release
Gastric/duodenal ulceration
Stomach mucosa protected from HCl by:
- Secretion of mucous layer
- Epithelial CM and interconnecting tight junctions impermeable by H+
- Epithelial cells replaced every 2-3 days
Ulceration pathophysiology
Increased acid production (duodenal ulcers)
Decreased protective functions (gastric ulcers)
HCl + pepsin damage epithelial cells and underlying tissues = ulceration
Damaged cells produce histamine which stimulates acid secretion and intensifies problem
Diarrhoea due to increased secretion + decreased absorption (villi damaged by acid)
Faeces appear dark red/black
Ulceration Aetology
- H Pylori in humans
- NSAIDs
- inhibit prostaglandin synthesis (prostaglandins stimulate production of mucous and bicarbonate)
- Protective mechanisms reduced
- Mast cell tumours/leukaemia
- Produce XS histamine
- Increases HCl production
- Gastrin-producing tumours
- Produce XS gastrin
- Increases HCl production
Ulcer treatment
Aimed at reducing HCl secretion
- Anti-histamines
- Proton Pump Inhibitors
Protecting ulcerated mucosa
- Antacids
- Mucosal Binding Agents
Digestion + Absorption (intestines)
SI is major site of digestion + absorption in simple stomached mammals
Absorption is selective process occurring via specific transporter proteins by
- Diffusion down conc gradient
- Secondary active transport
Most organic nutrients + monovalent ions absorbed irrespective of body requirements
Divalent ions + trace elements absorbed depending on body requirements
SI has large reserve capacity
- Up to 50% can be resected without hindering digestion/absorption
Most nutrients absorbed along entire length of SI
2 phases of digestion
- Luminal - enzymes secreted by salivary glands/pancreas
- Membranous - enzymes attached to epithelial surface of intestinal cells
Anything remaining undigested by SI passes on to LI for microbial fermentation
Functional anatomy of SI
3 parts
- Duodenum - 15% of length
- Jejunum - 75% of length
- Ileum - 10% of length
Standard intestinal structure
- Mucosa
- Submucosa
- Muscle (inner circular/outer longitudinal)
- Serosa
Surface area massively increased for absorption by:
- Mucosal folds
- Villi
- Microvilli
Cell types (intestine)
4 types of intestinal epithelial cell
- Goblet cells secrete mucous for lubrication + protection of mucosa and bicarbonate for neutralisation of stomach acid
- Enteroendocrine cells control digestive function via sensory mechanisms and release of hormones
- Paneth cells possibly involved in defence against microbial penetration
- Enterocytes (majority of cells) responsible for absorption via transporter proteins
- contain many brush border digestive enzymes
- enzymes remain attached to epithelial membrane
Continuous turnover of cells with migration from crypts up villus
- Sloughed off at villus tip
- Migration takes 2-5 days
Motility of SI
Serves to:
- Mix luminal contents
- Segmental contractions (digestive period)
- Propel contents down SI at appropriate rate to allow max digestion + absorption
- Peristaltic contractions (inter-digestive period)
SI emptying
- Circular muscle at ileo-caecal junction well developed
- Functions as physiological valve/sphincter
- Especially pronounced at ileo-caecal junction in horses
- Motility of stomach increases after feeding
- Ileal contractions increase
- Ileo-colic sphincter relaxes
- Facilitates emptying of SI to colon
- Gastro-ileal reflex
Segmental contractions
CIrcular contractions occur along distended intestine
- Divide intestinal contents into small segments
- New contractions occur in centre of distended segment
- Repeated many times
- Mixes contents with digestive juices
- Moves contents towards mucosal surface for digestion/absorption
Segmental contractions 2
Main type of contraction during digestive period
- Intense contractions upon emptying of stomach
- Short periods of weak segmental contractions
- allows weak peristaltic contractions to occur
- BUT they soon die out
- Overall a slow aboral movement of chyme occurs
- As chyme reaches distal SI, feedback mechanism inhibits proximal contractions
- Mediated via neural/hormonal mechanisms
- major mechanism for coordinating SI transit to allow maximal digestion/absorption
- SI transit ~3-4 hours in most species regardless of size
Peristaltic contractions
Main type of contraction when digestion/absorption complete (inter-digestive period)
- Irregular moderate peristaltic activity
- Propagates a short distance
- Regular strong peristaltic activity
- Propagates a long distance
- Each new contraction starts slightly further down the SI
- When a peristaltic contraction reaches ileum, a new one starts in duodenum
- Migrating Myo-electric complex
- Takes ~1-2 hours to propagate down entire SI
- Empty SI of contents
- Prevent retrograde flow from colon
- Peristalsis can occur in reverse but reverse contractions die out quickly in SI
Propagation of peristalsis
Most motor neurone of ENS release Ach
- Stimulates smooth muscle contraction
Some inhibitory transmitters released too
Distension of segment causes stimulation + inhibition
- Longitudinal muscle relaxes/circular muscle contracts behind chyme
- Longitudinal muscle contracts/circular muscle relaxes in front of chyme
Regulation of motility (intestine)
Controlled by interstitial cells of Cajal = pacemaker cells
Spontaneous oscillations always present
- Independent of neuronal/hormonal influences
- Highest frequency of slow waves in duodenum declining towards ileum
- Duodenum can inhibit stomach emptying if chyme causes too much distension
- If sufficiently depolarised, multiple action potential spikes occur, causing smooth muscle contraction
- Propagate from cell-cell via gap junctions
- Strength of contraction determined by number of action potential spikes occurring
Regulation of motility (intestines) 2
Mainly regulated by ENS
Presence of chyme in duodenum stimulates short reflex arcs dependent on degree of distension
Strength of contraction increased by parasympathetic/decreased by sympathetic control
- Major function of ANS is to coordinate motility in different parts of the GI tract via long reflex arcs
Carbohydrate digestion + absorption (intestines)
Provide most of energy in herbivores/omnivores
- Polysaccharides
- ⍺-glycosidic bonds - digestible by mammalian enzymes
- β-glycosidic bonds - requires microbial fermentation
- Disaccharides
- Maltose
- Sucrose
- Lactose
- Monosaccharides
Carbohydrate digestion
Only monosaccharides can be absorbed
- Luminal digestive phase:
- Starch/amylose –> maltose
- Salivary amylase continues digestion in SI with pancreatic amylase
- Membranous digestive phase
- Maltose –> glucose x2
- Sucrose –> glucose + fructose
- Lactose –> glucose + galactose
Disaccharidases
Disaccharidases attached to enterocyte brush border
- Maltase/Sucrase/Lactase
- Digestion of maltose/sucrose very quick - rate of absorption is limiting factor
- Lactose digestion is much slower - absorption rate is limiting factor
- Disaccharidase levels change with age
- Neonate - high lactase/low maltase
- Adult - low lactase/high maltase
- Ruminants - no sucrase
Carbohydrate absorption
Glucose and galactose absorbed by sodium glucose co-transporter (SGLT1)
- Secondary active transport
- Na+ & glucose bind to transporter on luminal side
- Conformational change in transporter moves Na+ & glucose/galactose into cell and release them into cytosol
- High levels of Na+ in digestive juice maintain luminal concentration of Na+ high
- Concentration of glucose/galactose in cytosol high so diffuse down gradient into blood via facilitative transporter GLU2
Fructose absorbed down concentration gradient by facilitative transporter (GLUT5)
- Passive transport
- Diffuse out of cytosol down concentration gradient into blood via GLUT2
Transferred to liver via hepatic portal vein
Stored as glycogen or continue in circulation to be metabolised for energy
Secondary active transport
Na+ moves from lumen into enterocyte down its concentration gradient
Energy from this used to co-transport glucose/galactose
Na+ gradient maintained by Na+/K+ ATPase on basolateral membrane
Moves 3 Na+ ions out of cell in exchange for 2 K+ ions
- Maintains net -ve charge in cell
Requires ATP (primary active transport)
Adaptation to diet (intestines)
Some digestive/absorptive functions regulated by diet
Others are pre-programmed to appear at a certain phase of life and then disappear irrespective of diet
Omnivores:
- Diet contains high levels of bicarbonate
- SGLT1 levels remain high
- Expressed high throughout SI
Ruminants
- SGLT1 expression in lambs is high
- As rumen develops, less bicarbonate passes into SI
- SGLT1 expression declines to negligible amounts in adult grazers
- Maintained in intermediates/browsers as some bicarbonate bypasses fermentation and passes into SI
Horses
- SGLT1 highest proximally declining distally in wild horses on grass
- To compete, domestic horses fed increased levels of bicarbonate
- Consequently SI adapts by increasing levels of SGLT1 overall but especially proximally
Lactose intolerance
Main carbohydrate in milk is lactose
Requires lactase to digest
Lactase activity high in neonate but programmed to decline as animal is weaned
- Lactase levels low/negligible in adults
- EXCEPT caucasians
In absence of lactase, lactose accumulates in gut lumen
- Osmotic force -> decreased water absorption (diarrhoea)
- Once reaches LI fermented
- Lactic acid cause pH to decline upsetting microbial balance
- Lactate poorly absorbed cf VFAs - creates osmotic effect to further decrease water absorption
- Gas products cause distention in pain/discomfort
Protein digestion + absorption
Carnivorous/omnivorous diets high in protein
Herbivorous diets low in protein - BUT ruminant SI receives lots of protein in the form of microbial protein passing from rumen
Protein digestion initiated in the stomach
Continues in SI with pancreatic proteases (luminal phase of digestion)
End products of digestion are di/tri-peptides and amino acids
- Most protein absorbed as di/tri-peptides
- Amino acids transported into enterocytes via Na+ co-transport similar to monosaccharides (secondary active transport)
- Di/tri-peptides transported into enterocytes via H+ co-transport
Transported out of enterocyte down their concentration gradient via facilitative transporters
Enzymatic digestion very fast therefore rate limiting step is absorption.
Protein digestion in neonates
Proteins can’t be absorbed as they would be regarded as foreign material and evoke an immune reaction
In neonates, the immune system is poorly developed
Placental transfer of maternal antibodies occurs via colostrum in the 1st 24-36 hours of life
To enable absorption of intact protein
- Epithelial cells of intestine are permeable to intact protein
- Stomach products negligible amounts of HCl
- Pancreatic enzyme secretion is low
- Colostrum contains trypsin inhibitors
Consequently large amount of maternal antibody can absorbed in the 1st 24 hours to provide passive immunity to the neonate
Functional anatomy of the pancreas
Microscopic structure of exocrine pancreas similar to salivary gland
- Groups of acini
- Simple cuboidal epithelium surrounding an excretory duct
- Several excretory ducts combine with increasing dimension to terminate as pancreatic duct/accessory pancreatic duct
Microscopic structure of endocrine pancreas consists of lots of isolated clumps of cells surrounding a capillary (islets of Langerhans)
2 major functions
- digestion (exocrine pancreas)
- regulation of metabolism (endocrine pancreas)
Exocrine pancreas
Principal function is digestion
Pancreatic juice has 2 major components
- bicarbonate to neutralise stomach acid thereby protecting SI mucosa
- also provide the correct pH for digestive enzymes
- Enzymes to digest food material for absorption in SI
- Involved in carbohydrate/protein/fat digestion
In horse/pig substantial amounts of pancreatic juice produced to create a large intestinal environment suitable for fermentation
- Equivalent to saliva production in ruminants