GI Flashcards
Foregut structures and blood supply
Week 3 of development
Top portion supplied by celiac artery, gives rise to liver, gallbladder, pancreas, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, spleen
What structures are in Midgut and what is the blood supply?
Supplied by superior mesenteric artery and vitelline duct
3rd & 4th sections of duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, appendix, ascending colon, and proximal 2/3 of transverse colon
Physiologic herniation through umbilical ring
Hindgut
Distal 1/3 transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and upper part of anal canal
Microscopic anatomy of gallbladder (inside to outside)
Mucosa contains epithelium (simple columnar cells, highly folded) and lamina propria (dense irregular connective tissue, immune cells, and capillaries)
Tunica muscularis (bundles of smooth muscle randomly oriented
External adventitia connects to the liver and is dense irregular connective tissue
External serosa not attached to liver and made up of loose irregular connective tissue w/ lymphatic vessels, blood vessels, adipocytes, and mesothelium on outside
Microscopic anatomy of esophagus (inside to outside)
Mucosa: Epithelium (stratified squamous non-keratinized cells), Lamina propria (dense irregular connective tissue, and Muscularis mucosa (longitudinal smooth muscle)
Submucosa: dense collagenous connective tissue w/ elastin, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerves, and mucosal glands in lower 1/3
Muscularis Propria: inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer of muscle, 1/3 upper skeletal, middle 1/3 skeletal & SM, Auerbach plexus
Adventitia: connective tissue attach nearby structure
Serosa: last 1-2 cm simple squamous epithelium
Stomach microscopic anatomy
Cardia:
Mucosa: simple columnar epithelium that form gastric pits w/ cardiac glands secrete mucus and muscularis mucosa consisting of thin layer of SM
Submucosa: dense irregular CT
Muscularis propria: 3 layers of S muscle inner oblique, circular, and longitudinal
Serosa: loose connective tissue
Fundus:
Mucosa: rugae w/ parietal cells (isthmus, secrete gastric acid and Intrinsic factor), mucous neck cells, chief cells (secrete pepsinogen found in base), and G cells that secrete gastrin)
Submucosa: dense irregular CT
Muscularis propria: 3 layers of S muscle inner oblique, circular, and longitudinal
Serosa: loose connective tissue
Pylorus:
Mucosa: gastric pits 1/2, pyloric glands secrete mucus are shorter, small number G, parietal, and stem cells
Submucosa: dense irregular CT
Muscularis propria: 3 layers of S muscle inner oblique, circular, and longitudinal
Serosa: loose connective tissue
Small Intestine microscopic anatomy
All share submucosa (dense irregular CT, meissner’s plexus), muscularis propria (circular, myenteric plexus, and longitudinal), and serosa (loose connective tissue)
Duodenum
Mucosa: long tall villi, enterocytes (simple columnar cells w/ microvilli and goblet cells that secrete mucus), lamina propria (loose connective tissue), crypts of Lieberkuhn (stem cells -> epithelial cells, paneth cells prevent against pathogens), muscularis mucosa
Submucosa: burnner’s glands secrete alkaline mucus
Jejunum
Mucosa: same as duodenum
Ileum
Mucosa: short broader villi, Peyer’s patches within lamina propria, lacteals w/in cores of villi that absorb fat,
Colon Microscopic Anatomy
Mucosa: epithelium (enterocytes simple columnar cells w/ microvilli that absorb water and goblet cells secret mucus), lamina propria (plasma cells, lymphocytes, eosinophils, macrophages), crypts of Lieberkuhn, and muscularis mucosa
Submucosa: dense irregular connective tissue, meissner’s plexus, lymphatic vessels, and blood vessels
Muscularis propria: circular, myenteric plexus, longitudinal, tinea coli
Serosa
Liver Microscopic Anatomy
HEPATOCYTES: Perform metabolic, synthetic, storage, catabolic and excretory functions. Apical surface of hepatocytes face bile canaliculi. Basolateral surface faces sinusoids.
KUPFFER CELLS: Macrophages, form the lining of sinusoids.. Protect against infection and circulating toxins (e.g., endotoxin), but with higher efficiency. Activated Kupffer cells also release cytokines, such as TNF-α, interleukins, interferons and TGFs α and β
STELLATE CELLS: (Ito cells) have specialized storage capacities. Contain fat, vitamin A and other lipid-soluble vitamins. Secrete extracellular matrix components, including collagens, laminin and proteoglycans. In disease states, can make in great excess, leading to hepatic fibrosis and eventually cirrhosis.
Pancreas Microscopic Anatomy
Exocrine: Acini contain secretory cells (pyramid-shaped with rough ER at base and zymogens at apices), centroacinar cell, intercalated duct (simple cuboidal epithelium)
Intralobular duct: stratified cuboidal cells and thicken connective tissue
capsule
Intralobular duct: epithelium that could be simple columnar, stratified columnar, or stratified cuboidal and large CT
Interlobular ducts: epithelium (simple columnar cells, or stratified columnar, or stratified cuboidal) connective tissue
Endocrine: islets of Langerhans (fenestrated capillaries, beta cells, alpha cells, delta cells, and pp cells)
Mastication (mechanism, regulation, and factors)
Mechanism: Food gets broken down via masseter, temporalis, medial pterygoid, and lateral pterygoid. Salivary glands secrete saliva that contains salivary amylase, mineral salts, and mucus. Tongue moves side to side pushing between teeth for extra grinding.
Factors: food in mouth, sight of food
Deglutination (mechanism)
Mechanism: Starts with voluntary movement of the tongue pushing bolus to oropharynx then mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, and taste receptors in upper esophagus detect food -> sensory info via trigeminal, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerve to the medulla -> motor info via vagus->
soft palate and uvula moves up -> epiglottis covers larynx -> upper esophageal sphincter relaxes-> upper esophageal sphincter closes-> vagus -> peristalsis -> lower esophageal sphincter relaxes
Salivary gland (embryology, location, function, innervation, circulation)
Embro: ectoderm
Location:
Parotid- below external acoustic meatus/zygomatic arch, behind masseter, in front of SCM, along angle of mandible, contain facial nerve, retromandibular vein, external carotid artery, superficial temporal artery, facial nerve, parotid duct
Submandibular gland- posterior half of mandible, inferior/deep to body of mandible and superficial/deep to mylohyoid muscle
Function: secrete saliva, keep mouth mucosa hydrated, makes swallowing easier, digestion of starch
Innervation: parasympathetic via glossopharyngeal nerve, sympathetic via superior cervical ganglion
Esophagus (innervation, circulatory pathway,)
Innervation: parasympathetic control peristalsis via vagus nerve, sympathetic vis sympathetic trunk from greater splanchnic nerve T5 to T9
Circulatory pathway: inferior thyroid arteries/vein, thoracic aorta/left gastric vein/esophageal veins, left gastric artery
Pharynx (embryo, circulatory pathway, innervation)
Embryo: pharyngeal pouch
Circulatory: facial artery, maxillary artery, inferior thyroid artery, and superior thyroid artery
Innervation: pharyngeal plexus, pharyngeal branch of vagus nerve, glossopharyngeal
Liver (circulatory pathway and innervation)
Circulatory: hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein
Innervation: hepatic nervous plexus, sympathetic celiac plexus, and parasympathetic from vagal trunk
Pancreas ( circulatory pathway and innervation)
Circulatory: (head and uncinate) superior pancreaticoduodenal artery, inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery, and pancreatic artery (body and tail)
Innervation: parasympathetic vagus, sympathetic greater and lesser splanchnic nerves (T5-T12)
Mastication regulation
Regulation: muscles are innervated by trigeminal nerve, salivary glands are innervated by glossopharyngeal and facial nerve via parasympathetic activation, mechanoreceptors in periodontal ligaments, taste receptors on tongue, salivatory nuclei in brainstem
Mastication factors
Factors: food in mouth, sight of food
Deglutination regulation
Regulation: swallowing center in medulla via vagus and glossopharyngeal
Pancreas function
endocrine: regulate blood sugar levels,
exocrine: pancreatic amylase to breakdown carbs, trypsin & chymotrypsin breakdown proteins, and lipase breakdown lipids, ductal cells secrete NaK and ClHCO3
Liver function
detoxify harmful substances, normal blood glucose level, store Vit A, D, E, K, B12, iron, copper, remove amine group from amino acids, albumin, coagulation factors, regulate lipid metabolism, make VLDL, HDL,), bile synthesis
Pharynx (Micro anatomy)
buccopharyngeal fascia, muscular layer (circular and longitudinal part
Pharynx (location)
cranial base to the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage anteriorly and the inferior border of the C6 vertebra posteriorly
Pharynx (function)
carries air, carries food and fluid for throat
Gallbladder (circulatory pathway and innervation)
Circulatory: cystic artery, segmental portal veins
Innervation: hepatic plexus, vagus nerve
Gallbladder function
reservoir for bile
Stomach innervation, artery, vein
Nerve: parasympathetic from anterior vagal trunk and posterior vagal trunk, sympathetic celiac plexus (T5-T12)
Artery: gastric arteries, gastroomental artery, posterior gastric arteries, gastroduodenal artery
Vein: gastric vein, gastroomental vein, posterior gastric vein, and gastroduodenal vein
Stomach function
chemical and mechanical digestion of ingested food
Duodenum nerve, artery, vein
Nerve: sympathetic greater splanchnic and parasympathetic vagus nerve
Artery: gastroduodenal artery, anterior/posterior/inferior pancreaticoduodenal artery
Vein: duodenal vein
Duodenum Function
dilute and neutralise digestive juices, digest and process chyme passed on from the stomach, receive pancreatic enzymes and bile, as well as absorb various nutrients
Jejunum function
digestion of nutrient
absorption of lipophilic nutrients and water
Ileum nerve, artery, vein
Nerve: coeliac plexus, superior mesenteric plexus, vagus nerve
Artery: straight arteries
Vein: superior mesenteric
Ileum function
Enzymatic digestion of nutrient
absorption of vitamin B12, fats, and bile salts
immunological function
Colon nerve, artery, vein
Nerve: superior mesenteric plexus, vagus nerve, inferior mesenteric plexus, pelvic splanchnic nerve
Artery; colic and sigmoid arteries
Rectum micro anatomy
Mucosa: simple columnar enterocytes, goblet cells, and turns into transitional zone stratified squamous non-keratinized
Lamina propria: CT, blood, lymph, muscle layer
Submucosa: loose CT, blood vessels, lymph follicles, meissner’s plexus,
Muscularis: circular extends to sphincter ani externus muscle, longitudinal muscle etends to corrugator cutis ani muscle, Auerbach’s plexus,
Rectum nerve, artery, vein
Nerve: symp inferior mesenteric plexus and para pelvic splanchnic nerve and inferior hypogastric plexs
Artery: superior, middle, inferior rectal arteries
Vein: superior, inferior, middle rectal veins
Rectum function
absorption of water and electrolytes and feces storage
Anus micro anatomy
Colorectal: simple columnar epithelium, folds
Transitional: simple columnar epithelium and stratified squamous epithelium, crypts of Morgagni, anal glands
Anoderm: stratified squamous non-keratinized epithelium, sensory neurons
Cutaneous: stratified squamous keratinized epithelium, pigmented, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, Pacinian corpuscles, and hair follicles
Anus nerve, artery, vein
Nerve: above dentate line (symp inferior mesenteric plexus, para pelvic splanchnic nerve and inferior hypogastric plexus) below ( pudendal)
Artery: above dentate line (superior rectal artery) below (middle/inferior rectal arteries)
Vein: above dentate line (superior rectal vein) below (middle and inferior rectal viens)
Anus function
absorption of water and electrolytes and defecation
Colon Function
absorption of water from stool
absorbs Na, K, Cl
secrets K
intestinal flora: decomposing indigestible foods, producing Vit K, promoting intestinal peristalsis, supporting immune
Intraperitoneal Organs
Stomach, 1st part of duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, appendix, transverse colon, sigmoid colon, liver, gallbladder, tail of pancreas, spleen
Retroperitoneal Organs
Suprarenal (adrenal) glands Aorta, IVC Duodenum Pancreas Ureters Colon Kidney Esophagus (lower 2/3) Rectum SAD PUCKER
Retroperitoneal Organs
Suprarenal (adrenal) glands Aorta, IVC Duodenum Pancreas Ureters Colon Kidney Esophagus (lower 2/3) Rectum SAD PUCKER
Gastrin (source)
Source: G Cells in antrum of stomach, duodenum
Gastrin Action
↑ Gastric H+ secretion
↑ Growth of gastric mucosa
↑ Gastric motility
Stimulates the release of histamine from enterochromaffin-like cells
Stimulates H+ and gastric mucosa (gastric motility)
Gastrin Regulation
↑ By stomach distention/alkalinization, amino acids, peptides, vagal stimulation via gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP)
↓ pH < 1.5
Somatostatin source
D Cells
Pancreatic islets, GI mucosa
Somatostatin action
↓ Gastric acid secretion ↓ Pepsinogen secretion ↓ Pancreatic secretion ↓ Small intestine fluid secretion ↓ Gallbladder contraction ↓ Insulin + glucagon release
Somatostatin regulation
↑ By acid
↓ By vagal stimulation
Cholecystokinin source
I Cells
Duodenum, jejunum
Cholecystokinin action
↑ Pancreatic secretion
↑ Gallbladder contraction
↓ Gastric emptying
↑ Sphincter of Oddi relaxation (leading to release of pancreatic enzymes + bicarbonate)
Cholecystokinin regulation
↑ By fatty acids, amino acids
Acts on neural muscarinic pathways to cause pancreatic secretion
Secretin source
S Cells
Duodenum
Secretin Action
↑ Pancreatic HCO3- secretion
↓ Gastric H+ secretion
↑ Bile acid secretion in liver
pancreatic enzymes to function
Secretin Regulation
↑ By acid, fatty acids in lumen of duodenum
low pH of food mixture from the stomach
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide S
K Cells
Duodenum, jejunum
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide A
Exocrine:
↓ Gastric H+ secretion
Endocrine:
↑ Insulin release
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide R
↑ By fatty acids, amino acids, oral glucose
Motilin Source
Small intestine
Motilin Action
Produces migrating motor complexes (MMCs)
Motilin Reg
↑ In fasting state
Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide Source
Parasympathetic ganglia in sphincters, gallbladder, small intestine
Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide action
↑ Insteinal water and electrolyte secretion
↑ Relaxation of intestinal smooth muscle and sphincters
Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide reg
↑ By distention and vagal stimulation
↓ By adrenergic input
Nitric Oxide source
smooth muscle relaxing and vasodilation
Nitric Oxide A
↑ Smooth muscle relaxation, including lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
Pathology associated with Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide
VIPoma (non-a, non-B islet cell pancreatic tumor that secretes VIP) Associated with Watery Diarrhea, Hypokalemia, Achlorhydria (WDHA syndrome)
What pathology is associated with Gastrin?
↑ Chronic PPI use
↑ In chronic atrophic gastritis (eg, H. pylori)
↑↑ In Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (gastrinoma)
Ghrelin S
Stomach
Ghrelin A
↑ Appetite (“ghrowlin’ stomach”)
Ghrelin R
↑ In fasting state
↓ By food
Ghrelin Patho associated
↑ In Prader-Willi syndrome
↓ After gastric bypass surgery
Intrinsic Factor S
Parietal cells
Stomach
Intrinsic Factor A
Vit B12 binding protein
Required for B12 uptake in terminal ileum
Intrinsic Factor patho
Autoimmune destruction of parietal cells > Chronic gastritis + pernicious anemia
Gastric Acid S
Parietal cells
Stomach
Gastric Acid A
↓ Stomach pH
Gastric Acid R
↑ By histamine
↑ Vagal stimulation (ACh)
↑ Gastrin
↓ By somatostatin
↓ GIP
↓ Prostaglandin
↓ Secretin
Pepsin S
Chief cells
Stomach
pepsinogen to pepsin
Pepsin A
Protein digestion
Pepsin R
↑ By vagal stimulation (ACh)
↑ Local acid
triggered by presence of H
Bicarbonate S
Mucosal cells - Stomach, duodenum, salivary glands, pancreas, trapped in mucus that covers the gastric epithelium
Brunner glands - Duodenum
Bicarbonate A
Neutralizes acid
Bicarbonate R
↑ By pancreatic and biliary secretion with secretin
Gluconeogenesis
Rate limiting: fructose-1,6-bisphosphate 1 Start: pyruvate End: glucose Cofactors: biotin, ATP, GTP, Mg, NADH, Location: Mitochondria, cytosol,
Beta-oxidation
Rate limiting: carnitine acyltransferase 1 Location: mitochondria Start: fatty acid End: acetyl CoA Cofactors: FAD, NAD
Lipid digestion
Fatty acids form globule gets turned in the stomach -> bile salts from liver break up globule -> lipase in saliva, stomach, and pancreas break down into monoglycerides and free fatty acids -> assemble into mixed micelles -> travel to intestinal lumen to enterocytes -> release fatty acids in enterocytes-. resemble into triglycerides -> package into chylomicron (phospholipids, protein, triglyceride, cholesterol, Vit A, D, E,K) -> enters lacteal -> thoracic duct -> dumped into blood -> release fatty acids and monoglycerides into muscle, adipose
Protein digestion
Protein reaches stomach-> HCl denatures protein, pepsin cleaves into oligopeptide chains -> move into duodenum where digestive enzyme from pancreas stimulated by CCK break them into tripeptides, dipeptides, and individual amino acids -> peptidases attach them to external surface -> intestine cells di & tri get converted into amino acids -> can be transported via specific transporter -> blood stream to tissues
Fat Soluble Vitamin digestion
Location: small intestine
incorporated into micelles along w/ products of lipid digestion and absorbed into enterocytes
Protein Structure
Chain of amino acids (central C, amino group, carboxylic acid group, and side chain) -> folded and then different changes might be added
Carb Structure
Glucose: 6 carbon, one double bound w/ O, 6 O molecules Fructose: 6 carbon, Galactose: 6 carbon Lactose: glucose +galactose beta 1-4 Sucrose: fructose+ glucose alpha 1-2 Maltose: glucose+ glucose alpha 1-4 monosaccharide: one sugar di/oligo/poly-Saccharide: when they linked together via glyosidic bonds Starches: oligosaccharide w/ branches
Lipid Structure
glycerol (3 carbon backbone) and fatty acid (chain carbon and hydrogen)
Large polysaccharides digestion
Amylase breaks down large polysaccharides into small units in mouth and duodenum
Lactose digestion
Lactase breaks β-1,4-glycosidic bond between galactose and glucose
Sucrose digestion
Sucrase breaks down into fructose and glucose
Fructose -> 2 3 carbon-> glycolysis
glucose move into blood-> ↑ insulin -> ↑ glucose into tissues -> glycogen or use
Maltase digestion
Malatse breaks down into glucose x2
Glucose move into blood-> ↑ insulin -> ↑ glucose into tissues -> glycogen or use
How much carbs do you need in diet?
45-65 % calories
Unsaturated Fatty acid
single bond, only H, straight line, can pack down, solid at room temp
Saturated Fatty acid
double bond, don’t pack, liquid at room temp
Triglyceride structure
3 sets of glycerol and fatty acid
How many carbons do short chain fatty acids
2-5 carbons
How many carbons in medium chain fatty acids
6-12 carbons
How many carbons in long chain fatty acids
> 13
Which amino acids are nonessential?
alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, serine
Which amino acids are conditionally essential?
arginine, cysteine, glutamine, glycine, proline, tyrosine
Which amino acids are essential?
PVT TIM Hall
histidine, isoleucine, leucine, methionine, phenylamine, threonine, tryptophan, valine
How much protein do adults need?
0.8 g/kg of body weight
Water-Soluble Vitamins Digestion
Location: ileum
cotransport w/ sodium
B12 digestion
ingestion -> stomach acidity releases B12 from food -> free B12 binds to haptocorrin (R protein) secreted by salivary glands -> pancreatic proteases degrade R protein in duodenum -> B12 binds to intrinsic factor -> intrinsic factor B12 complex resistant to degradation from pancreatic enzymes -> absorbed in ileum
Iron absorption
Location: Small intestine
ferric -> reduced to ferrous -> binds to apoferritin in enterocytes -> transported across basolateral membrane -> binds to transferrin in blood -> transferrin carries to liver
Calcium Absorption
cholecalciferol -> 25-hydroxycholecalciferol in liver -> 1,25-dihydroxycholecaliferol in kidney -> synthesizes calbindin D-28K -> promote calcium absorption in ileum and duodenum
Bilirubin Metabolism
RBC -> macrophage eat RBC -> breakdown hemaglobin into heme and globin -> heme converted into iron and protoporphyrin -> protoporphyrin converted into unconjugated bilirubin -> unconjugated bilirubin + albumin go to liver -> hepatocytes take it in and conjugate via UGT w/ glucuronic acid -> sent to gallbladder for storage as bile
Gastroschisis
extrusion of abdominal contents through abdominal wall defect, guts not covered by peritoneum or amnion
Omphalocele
herniation of abdominal contents through umbilicus covered by peritoneum and amnion, trisomies 13 and 18
Congenital umbilical hernia
failure of umbilical ring to close after physiological herniation of midgut, protrudes w/ intra-abdominal pressure
Parotitis etiology
Staph aureus, mumps, herpes, EBV
DM, tumors, stones, dental issues, HIV, Viral, TB, Sjorgen syndrome, sarcoidosis
Parotitis risk factors
close contact w/ mumps, cystic fibrosis, dehydration, HIV/AIDS, medications, not being immunized w/ MMR vaccine, poor oral hygiene, Sjorgen syndrome
Parotitis complication
massive swelling, obstruction respiratory dysfunctions, septicemia, facial bone osteomyelitis, septic jugular thrombophlebitis
Parotitis clinical characteristics
bacterial: painful swelling, fever
viral: pain, swelling, malaise, anorexia, fever
HIV: nonpainful swelling
TB: nontender swelling
Acute pancreatitis etiology
gallstones, hypertriglyceridemia, idiopathic, drug-induced, post-procedural, ampullary stenosis, autoimmune, infection, trauma, congenital anomalies, genetics, hypercalcemia, renal disease, toxins, vasculitis
Acute pancreatitis complication
Sepsis Necrotic pancreas Hemorrhagic pancreatitis Acute respiratory distress syndrome Renal failure Pancreatic duct disruption Pseudocysts Infected pancreatic necrosis Pancreatic abscess
Acute pancreatitis pathophys
Pancreatic juice enters tissues of pancreas, triggers auto-digestion of gland, inflammation, edema. May lead to hemorrhage and necrosis. Premature activation of trypsinogen to trypsin (digestion mode)
Zymogen
inactive enzyme, pH, chemoreceptor, or mechanoreceptor trigger release
GLUT 5
fructose transport
GLUT 2
cell to blood
Gastric zymogens
pepsinogen to pepsin activated via low pH
Pancreas zymogens
chymotrypsinogen
trypsinogen
procarboxypeptidase
proelastase
Bile salt
amphipathic molecule that come from cholesterol and are made in the liver and secreted by gallbladder in response to CCK
bind to lipids to make them more soluble
simulate micelle formation
Absorption of fatty acids
transported into intestinal cells by fatty-acid binding protein on membrane of intestinal cells -> moved to smooth ER via FABP-> triglycerides are resynthesized -> associated w/ protein, small amount of phospholipid and cholesterol are formed in the lumen of smooth ER -> chylomicrons are formed
Amylase
cleaves 1,4- bonds of carbohydrates to di and tri-saccharides
Stomach acid
gastric proton pump (H/K ATPase) on cell lining of the stomach
A-glucosidase
digests maltose and maltotriose
Regulatory substance of stomach
gastrin ghrelin gastric acid intrinsic factor pepsin bicarbonate somatostatin
Regulatory substance of Small Intestine
gastrin cholecystokinin secretin glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide motilin vasoactive intestinal peptide bicarbonate
Regulatory substance of pancreas
a-amylase lipase proteases trypsinogen somatostatin
Intrinsic Factor Reg
↑ histamine or vagal input via Ach, gastrin
↓ By somatostatin, GIP, prostaglandin, secretin
Nitric oxide patho
loss of NO secretion implicated in increased tone of achalasia
Acute Pancreatitis clinical
Severe epigastric pain (dull, boring, steady, radiates to back) Worse eating, better fasting Abdominal tenderness/distention N/V Loss of appetite Fever, chills, Tachycardia Jaundice Malabsorption (steatorrhea, diarrhea)
Chronic pancreatitis etiology
Chronic alcoholism, gallstones, autoimmune disease, tumors, genetics, congenital anomalies, idiopathic
Chronic Pancreatitis pathophy
loss and injury to acinar, islet, and ductal cells w/ fibrosis and loss of pancreatic function
Chronic pancreatitis RF
alcohol, smoking, obesity, diabetes, FH
Chronic pancreatitis Complication
malabsorption, diabetes, pancreatic pseudocyst, mechanical obstruction of bile/duodenum, pancreatic ascites, pleural effusion, gastric varices, splenic vein thrombosis, pancreatic adenocarcinoma
Chronic pancreatitis clinical
Upper abdominal pain worse after eating, better fasting Steatorrhea Vitamin malabsorption Weight loss Diabetes
Chronic pancreatitis def
continuing inflammatory disease of the pancreas w/ irreversible morphological changes
Acute pancreatitis def
inflammation of pancreas
Parotitis def
inflammation of parotid gland
Cholestasis def
decrease in bile flow due to impaired secretion by hepatocytes or to obstruction of bile flow through intra-or extrahepatic bile ducts
Cholestasis cause
gallstones, cysts, tumor, acute hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, primary biliary cholangitis, drugs, pancreatitis, pregnancy
Cholestasis pathophy
impairment of bile formation or impedance of bile flow
Cholestasis RF
FH, alcohol
Cholestasis complication
mineral bone disease, dyslipidemia, and fat-soluble vitamin deficiency
The pocketlike sacs of the large intestine are called
a. teniae coli
b. haustra
c. epiploic appendages
d. cecae
haustra
the esophageal hiatus is found on this organ
a. esophagus
b. stomach
c. diaphragm
d. pharynx
diaphragm
Which histological layer of the alimentary canal is also known as the visceral peritoneum?
a. submucosa
b. muscularis
c. serosa
d. mucosa
serosa
Which reflexes are we able to voluntarily control in GI system?
defecation reflex
Which hormone relaxes the hepatopancreatic sphincter?
CCK
simple columnar epithelium is found in which histological layer of the alimentary canal?
mucosa
Function of large intestine
absorption of water and electrolytes, elimination of waste, absorption of vitamins produced by bacteria
The membrane that lines the body wall of the abdominal cavity is the
parietal peritoneum
Alcoholic Liver Disease def
damage to liver and its function due to alcohol
Alcoholic Liver Disease cause
alcohol
Alcoholic Liver Disease pathophys
excessive alcohol in hepatocytes activates alcohol dehydrogenase which requires NAD -> ↑ NAD ↑fat production -> deposition of fat in liver -> alcoholic fatty liver
alcohol also ↑ ROS
↑ acetaldehyde bind to macromolecules -> acetaldehyde adducts -> neutrophils infiltrate -> damage to cells-> alcoholic hepatitis -> cirrhosis
Alcoholic Liver Disease RF
Sustained, long-term consumption of alcohol
Alcoholic Liver Disease complication
portal hypertension, varices, ascites, hepatic encephalopathy, infection, liver cancer, bleeding
Alcoholic Liver Disease pathophys
excessive alcohol in hepatocytes activates alcohol dehydrogenase which requires NAD -> ↑ NAD ↑fat production -> deposition of fat in liver -> alcoholic fatty liver
alcohol also ↑ ROS
↑ acetaldehyde bind to macromolecules -> acetaldehyde adducts -> neutrophils infiltrate -> damage to cells-> alcoholic hepatitis -> cirrhosis
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease def
excess fat build up in liver
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease cause
insulin resistance, hyperlipidemia, obesity
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease pathophys
insulin resistance -> liver to ↑ fat storage & synthesis & uptake of free fatty acids ↓ fatty acid oxidation and secretion of fatty acids into bloodstream -> ↑ fat in hepatocytes -> fatty acids degrade -> cell death -> NASH ->
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease RF
Metabolic syndrome (insulin resistance) Obesity HTN DM Hypertriglyceridemia Hyperlipidemia
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease complication
May cause fibrosis leading to cirrhosis
HCC
Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease pathophys
insulin resistance -> liver to ↑ fat storage & synthesis & uptake of free fatty acids ↓ fatty acid oxidation and secretion of fatty acids into bloodstream -> ↑ fat in hepatocytes -> fatty acids degrade -> cell death -> NASH ->
Cirrhosis cause
Alcohol (60-70%), nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, chronic viral hepatitis, AI hepatitis, biliary disease, genetic/metabolic disorders
Cirrhosis pathogen
Diffuse bridging fibrosis (via stellate cells) and regenerative nodules
Disrupt normal architecture of liver
Cirrhosis RF
alcohol, hepatitis infx, metabolic disease, genetic, HTN,
Cirrhosis def
liver damage lading to remodeling, permanent damage, and loss of function
Cirrhosis clinical
Weight loss, weakness, fatigue Jaundice Asterixis (tremors) Increased estrogen - gynecomastia, spider angiomas, testicular atrophy, palmar erythema Confusion
Gilbert syndrome def
benign intertied metabolic disorder causng reccuring unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia jaundice,
Gilbert syndrome pathogen
autosomal recessive
Genetic mutation in promoter region of UGT gene -> structurally normal enzyme -> impaired genetic expression of hepatic UGT w/ decreased activity -> decreased conjugation of bilirubin
Gilbert syndrome def
benign intertied metabolic disorder causing recurring unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia jaundice,
Gilbert syndrome cause
genetics
Gilbert syndrome clinical
jaundice
Hepatitis def
inflammation of the liver that occurs suddenly and can lead to liver failure
Hepatitis cause
medications, drugs, alcohol, toxins, autoimmune, metabolic, hemochromatosis, wilson’s disease
Portal Hypertension def
Increased pressure in the portal venous system
> 5-10mmHg
Portal Hypertension comp
Hepatic encephalopathy
Most common cause of esophageal varices
Bacterial peritonitis (with ascites)
Build up of ammonia in the blood
Hepatitis cause
medications, drugs, alcohol, toxins, autoimmune, metabolic, hemochromatosis, wilson’s disease, Autoimmune Hepatitis, A1-antitrypsin Deficiency
Hepatitis pathogen
causative agent causing inflammation or immune complexes attacking liver tissue
Hepatitis RF
alcohol, drugs, genetic
Hepatitis comp
Liver failure
Hepatitis clinical
Abdominal pain
Joint pain
Fever
Fatigue
Portal Hypertension cause
Pre-hepatic: Vascular obstruction (eg, portal vein thrombosis)
Intrahepatic: Cirrhosis (most common in western countries), Schistosomiasis, and Sarcoidosis
Post-hepatic: R sided HF, Constrictive pericarditis, and Budd-Chiari syndrome
Portal Hypertension pathogen
↑ pressure -> blood is diverted away from portal system -> ↓ blood to liver -> build up of ammonia
Portal Hypertension pathogen
↑ pressure -> blood is diverted away from portal system -> ↓ blood to liver -> build up of ammonia
Portal Hypertension clinical
Ascites Bleeding GI Caput medusa (veins on abdomen) Diminished liver function Enlarged spleen
Cholecystitis def
inflammation of gallbladder
Cholecystitis cause
gallstone, bacterial infx in bile duct, tumor, reduced blood supply to gallbladder, gallbladder sludge
Cholecystitis pathogen
obstruction of biliary outflow tract by stone -> gb tries to squeeze -> bile causes mucosal wall to secrete mucus and inflammatory enzymes -> causing inflammation -> E coli, enterococci, Bacteroides fragilis, clostridium can build up in GB/wall -> stone fall or stays stuck -> cell death
Cholecystitis RF
age 40 female hormonal changes obesity DM FHx
Cholecystitis comp
Cell death Rupture Sepsis Infection Jaundice
Cholecystitis clinical
RUQ pain radiate to right scapula or shoulder
N/V
Fever
Cholecystitis comp
Cell death Rupture Sepsis Infection Jaundice gallbladder adenocarcinoma
Cholelithiasis def
presence of gallstone in GB
Cholelithiasis cause
cholesterol: obesity, pregnancy, gallbladder stasis, drugs, genetics
Black: sickle cell anemia, hereditary spherocytosis, beta-thalassemia,
brown: intraductal stasis, bacteria, postsurgical biliary strictures, choledochal cysts
Cholelithiasis path
cholesterol, bilirubin, calcium, heme in bile are present in concentrations that approach the limit of their solubility causing them to form crystals