GG - Antarctica and the Global Commons Flashcards
What is a global commons?
The Earth’s shared resources which aren’t owned by one country or organisation - belong to everybody and should be available for everybody’s use and benefit
What are the 4 global commons?
- Deep oceans and high seas
- Atmosphere
- Outer Space
- Antarctica
Why do environmental NGOs want to protect the global commons?
Want to protect them from exploitation as they have unique wildlife habitats and have a positive impact on environmental global systems. Are also very valuable for scientific research
What is the ‘tragedy of the commons’?
When countries and organisations feel that they can exploit the global commons as the consequences for exploitation are shared by everybody
Why is the demand for resources increasing?
Industrialisation
Development
Increased waste production
How are pressures on the global commons increasing?
‘Tragedy of the commons’
Increased demand for resources
High vulnerability of the global commons due to increased accessibility
How are the global commons protected?
NGOs such as the WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature)
Global cooperation to create sustainable development
The UN
Give the physical geography of Antarctica
Most southern continent containing the geographic South Pole
5th largest continent in the world
The largest desert (cold desert)
No native / indigenous population
Contains 90% of all ice on Earth and 70% of all of fresh water on Earth
What area of Antarctica is considered to be the global commons?
The whole of the continent of Antarctica as well as the Southern Ocean as far north as the Antarctic Convergence
What is the climate of Antarctica like?
Average temperature of -49°C
Only small amounts of rainfall —> inland around 166mm (desert) and at the coast 200mm per year
Strong winds (can exceed 30m/s) due to central plateau
What is the wildlife like in Antarctica?
Due to low temperatures, little rainfall and limited sunshine lichens and mosses dominate the land area
Only two types of flowering plant can grow
Environmental recovery is slow due to cold temperatures reducing the rate of decomposition and growth so the terrestrial environment is very fragile - decades for a footprint in moss to remain
Surrounding sea supports a rich variety of marine birds
What is the Antarctic Convergence?
The point at which cold Antarctica waters meets the warmer sea water to the north - boundary that loops all around the Antarctic continent
Explain why there is a productive marine environment in Antarctica
At the Antarctic Convergence warmer saline waters meet colder, denser and less saline waters moving north from Antarctica
When the conflict currents meet and converge nutrient rich water up wells to create a productive marine environment for plants and animals such as krill
What are the four main threats to Antarctica?
Climate change
Fishing and whaling
Search for minerals
Tourism and research
Describe how climate change is a threat to Antarctica
Antarctic Peninsula is one of the most rapidly warming places in the world increasing by 3°C in the last 50 years
Variation in ice sheets as high loss in the Antarctic peninsula and West Antarctic Ice Sheet but East Antarctica’s ice sheet is thickening
Melting sea ice has caused rise of 3mm a year —> caused krill population to decline by 80% (basis of many food webs)
Describe how fishing and whaling is a threat to Antarctica
Over-exploitation has lead to the depletion in marine species - ‘tragedy of the commons’
Antarctic Krill are the most fished creature there —> has knock on effects on larger fish, marine mammals and bird in the food chain
Whaling was a common practise in the mid-20th century but has declined since 1982 when the International Whaling Commission regulations banned commercial whaling
In 1994 the IWC established the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary
Whales are slow breeders so the population is slow to recover
What is the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary?
Established by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) in 1994
A 50 million km^2 area surrounding Antarctica where all types of commercial whaling are banned
How is search for minerals a threat to Antarctica
Known mineral deposits of coal, oil, gold etc under the Southern Ocean
—> But sizeable deposits that are. Easy to reach under the ocean are rare and not economically viable to mine
Mineral mining is prohibited by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty but the ban can be revisited in 2048 and so may be lifted
—> Some countries such as China and Russia want to revisit the ban sooner as the have interests in mineral wealth
What are the ‘benefits’ and negative impacts of tourism?
Benefits
Self regulation of the industry by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) ensures tourism is sustainable
Tourism is financially exclusive so visitors tend to be environmentally aware
Antarctic Treaty System rules only one ship landing at each time and to keep at least 5m away from wildlife
Negative impacts
Concerns about impact on fragile ecosystems (cold environment)
Accidental introduction of invasive species e.g the Mediterranean mussel brought in by tourist ships
Tourism increases shipping and air travel which leads to water and air pollution (in 2019/20 approx 75,000 people compared to less than 2000 in the 1980s)
How is scientific research a threat to Antarctica?
Antarctica has a non-permanent population of 4,000 scientists and support staff across 50 coastal and interior research stations
These research stations require many facilities e.g bases to live in, roads for transport
—> Until the 1980s waste created in the bases was either burned, thrown into the sea or dumped
How has scientific research in Antarctica been beneficial?
Ice core drilling enables analysis of information about past climatic conditions which can be interpreted to help mitigation
Volcanic eruptions have left layers of ash in the snow acting as markers
Allowed scientists to understand that climates follow natural cycles that change throughout geological time and human activity has contributed to contemporary climate change
How is Antarctica governed?
Not a Nation state although many countries have made territorial claims to segments of Antarctica (not significant as halted by the Antarctic Treaty
International agreements and laws are in place to protect Antarctica e.g the Antarctic Treaty and the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
Global instructions help to govern Antarctica e.g the International Whaling Commission (IWC) and the United Nations Environment Programme
Describe the Antarctic Treaty
In December 1959 12 nations signed this international agreement
Now 56 countries have signed
Terms in the treaty include
- Antarctica should only be used for peaceful reasons - no army bases or weapons allowed
- Countries should cooperate on scientific research - all discoveries shared
- Should remain a global commons
All bases and equipment can be inspected at any time and UN bodies such as UNEP have ‘observer’ status in meetings
—> However, inspections do not happen often
Describe the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
It was signed in 1991 and added to the Antarctic Treaty
Focuses on protecting Antarctica’s fragile environment
- Has banned all mining in Antarctica
- Rules to protect plants and animals, regulate waste disposal and prevent pollution
- Assessments needed for any new activities
What are the limitations of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty?
There is no system to ensure all countries abide by the rules
If there are disputes countries are encouraged to negotiate or go to the International Court of Justice
Countries must reach a consensus over all decisions meaning decision-making can be very slow and difficult
Describe the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
A UN agency which is the main institution to govern the world’s environment
Programme in Antarctica run by CCAMLR with 27 members
Describe the International Whaling Commission (IWC) Whaling Moratorium
In 1982 the IWC introduced the Whaling Moratorium which banned all commercial whaling around the world including Antarctica
However, its success has only been measured on sightings and modelling
NGOs such as Greenpeace have said it is poorly enforced
Countries such as Japan and Norway say the IIWC does not have the authority to have observers on boats
Countries such as Japan have continued to kill large numbers of whales for ‘scientific research’
What is the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC) ?
ASOC formed in 1978 from a group of NGOs which campaigned to make the Antarctic Treaty more transparent
Monitors environmental changes in Antarctica and whether countries are following the 1991 Environmental Protocol
What is the Antarctic Circle?
The imaginary line around the world running parallel to the Equator at 66 degrees South
What is an ice sheet?
Land ice extending over 50,000 km^2
What is an ice shelf?
A sheet of ice which floats on the oceans but is attached to the land
What are the two major ice shelves in Antarctica?
The Ross (south west) and Ronne (north west) Ice Shelves
What are the different land sections of Antarctica?
East Antarctica
West Antarctica
Antarctic Peninsula
Name a research centre in Antarctica
Amundsen Scott (USA) at the South Pole
What is the largest mountain in Antarctica?
Mount Vinson Massif
