GG - Antarctica and the Global Commons

Question 1

What is a global commons?

Answer 1

The Earth’s shared resources which aren’t owned by one country or organisation - belong to everybody and should be available for everybody’s use and benefit

Question 2

What are the 4 global commons?

Answer 2

• Deep oceans and high seas
• Atmosphere
• Outer Space
• Antarctica

Question 3

Why do environmental NGOs want to protect the global commons?

Answer 3

Want to protect them from exploitation as they have unique wildlife habitats and have a positive impact on environmental global systems. Are also very valuable for scientific research

Question 4

What is the ‘tragedy of the commons’?

Answer 4

When countries and organisations feel that they can exploit the global commons as the consequences for exploitation are shared by everybody

Question 5

Why is the demand for resources increasing?

Answer 5

Industrialisation
Development
Increased waste production

Question 6

How are pressures on the global commons increasing?

Answer 6

‘Tragedy of the commons’
Increased demand for resources
High vulnerability of the global commons due to increased accessibility

Question 7

How are the global commons protected?

Answer 7

NGOs such as the WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature)
Global cooperation to create sustainable development
The UN

Question 8

Give the physical geography of Antarctica

Answer 8

Most southern continent containing the geographic South Pole
5th largest continent in the world
The largest desert (cold desert)
No native / indigenous population
Contains 90% of all ice on Earth and 70% of all of fresh water on Earth

Question 9

What area of Antarctica is considered to be the global commons?

Answer 9

The whole of the continent of Antarctica as well as the Southern Ocean as far north as the Antarctic Convergence

Question 10

What is the climate of Antarctica like?

Answer 10

Average temperature of -49°C
Only small amounts of rainfall —> inland around 166mm (desert) and at the coast 200mm per year
Strong winds (can exceed 30m/s) due to central plateau

Question 11

What is the wildlife like in Antarctica?

Answer 11

Due to low temperatures, little rainfall and limited sunshine lichens and mosses dominate the land area
Only two types of flowering plant can grow
Environmental recovery is slow due to cold temperatures reducing the rate of decomposition and growth so the terrestrial environment is very fragile - decades for a footprint in moss to remain
Surrounding sea supports a rich variety of marine birds

Question 12

What is the Antarctic Convergence?

Answer 12

The point at which cold Antarctica waters meets the warmer sea water to the north - boundary that loops all around the Antarctic continent

Question 13

Explain why there is a productive marine environment in Antarctica

Answer 13

At the Antarctic Convergence warmer saline waters meet colder, denser and less saline waters moving north from Antarctica
When the conflict currents meet and converge nutrient rich water up wells to create a productive marine environment for plants and animals such as krill

Question 14

What are the four main threats to Antarctica?

Answer 14

Climate change
Fishing and whaling
Search for minerals
Tourism and research

Question 15

Describe how climate change is a threat to Antarctica

Answer 15

Antarctic Peninsula is one of the most rapidly warming places in the world increasing by 3°C in the last 50 years
Variation in ice sheets as high loss in the Antarctic peninsula and West Antarctic Ice Sheet but East Antarctica’s ice sheet is thickening
Melting sea ice has caused rise of 3mm a year —> caused krill population to decline by 80% (basis of many food webs)

Question 16

Describe how fishing and whaling is a threat to Antarctica

Answer 16

Over-exploitation has lead to the depletion in marine species - ‘tragedy of the commons’
Antarctic Krill are the most fished creature there —> has knock on effects on larger fish, marine mammals and bird in the food chain
Whaling was a common practise in the mid-20th century but has declined since 1982 when the International Whaling Commission regulations banned commercial whaling
In 1994 the IWC established the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary
Whales are slow breeders so the population is slow to recover

Question 17

What is the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary?

Answer 17

Established by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) in 1994

A 50 million km^2 area surrounding Antarctica where all types of commercial whaling are banned

Question 18

How is search for minerals a threat to Antarctica

Answer 18

Known mineral deposits of coal, oil, gold etc under the Southern Ocean
—> But sizeable deposits that are. Easy to reach under the ocean are rare and not economically viable to mine
Mineral mining is prohibited by the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty but the ban can be revisited in 2048 and so may be lifted
—> Some countries such as China and Russia want to revisit the ban sooner as the have interests in mineral wealth

Question 19

What are the ‘benefits’ and negative impacts of tourism?

Answer 19

Benefits
Self regulation of the industry by the International Association of Antarctica Tour Operators (IAATO) ensures tourism is sustainable
Tourism is financially exclusive so visitors tend to be environmentally aware
Antarctic Treaty System rules only one ship landing at each time and to keep at least 5m away from wildlife

Negative impacts
Concerns about impact on fragile ecosystems (cold environment)
Accidental introduction of invasive species e.g the Mediterranean mussel brought in by tourist ships
Tourism increases shipping and air travel which leads to water and air pollution (in 2019/20 approx 75,000 people compared to less than 2000 in the 1980s)

Question 20

How is scientific research a threat to Antarctica?

Answer 20

Antarctica has a non-permanent population of 4,000 scientists and support staff across 50 coastal and interior research stations
These research stations require many facilities e.g bases to live in, roads for transport
—> Until the 1980s waste created in the bases was either burned, thrown into the sea or dumped

Question 21

How has scientific research in Antarctica been beneficial?

Answer 21

Ice core drilling enables analysis of information about past climatic conditions which can be interpreted to help mitigation
Volcanic eruptions have left layers of ash in the snow acting as markers

Allowed scientists to understand that climates follow natural cycles that change throughout geological time and human activity has contributed to contemporary climate change

Question 22

How is Antarctica governed?

Answer 22

Not a Nation state although many countries have made territorial claims to segments of Antarctica (not significant as halted by the Antarctic Treaty
International agreements and laws are in place to protect Antarctica e.g the Antarctic Treaty and the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
Global instructions help to govern Antarctica e.g the International Whaling Commission (IWC) and the United Nations Environment Programme

Question 23

Describe the Antarctic Treaty

Answer 23

In December 1959 12 nations signed this international agreement
Now 56 countries have signed

Terms in the treaty include
- Antarctica should only be used for peaceful reasons - no army bases or weapons allowed
- Countries should cooperate on scientific research - all discoveries shared
- Should remain a global commons

All bases and equipment can be inspected at any time and UN bodies such as UNEP have ‘observer’ status in meetings
—> However, inspections do not happen often

Question 24

Describe the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty

Answer 24

It was signed in 1991 and added to the Antarctic Treaty
Focuses on protecting Antarctica’s fragile environment
- Has banned all mining in Antarctica
- Rules to protect plants and animals, regulate waste disposal and prevent pollution
- Assessments needed for any new activities

Question 25

What are the limitations of the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty?

Answer 25

There is no system to ensure all countries abide by the rules
If there are disputes countries are encouraged to negotiate or go to the International Court of Justice

Countries must reach a consensus over all decisions meaning decision-making can be very slow and difficult

Question 26

Describe the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)

Answer 26

A UN agency which is the main institution to govern the world’s environment
Programme in Antarctica run by CCAMLR with 27 members

Question 27

Describe the International Whaling Commission (IWC) Whaling Moratorium

Answer 27

In 1982 the IWC introduced the Whaling Moratorium which banned all commercial whaling around the world including Antarctica

However, its success has only been measured on sightings and modelling
NGOs such as Greenpeace have said it is poorly enforced
Countries such as Japan and Norway say the IIWC does not have the authority to have observers on boats
Countries such as Japan have continued to kill large numbers of whales for ‘scientific research’

Question 28

What is the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC) ?

Answer 28

ASOC formed in 1978 from a group of NGOs which campaigned to make the Antarctic Treaty more transparent

Monitors environmental changes in Antarctica and whether countries are following the 1991 Environmental Protocol

Question 29

What is the Antarctic Circle?

Answer 29

The imaginary line around the world running parallel to the Equator at 66 degrees South

Question 30

What is an ice sheet?

Answer 30

Land ice extending over 50,000 km^2

Question 31

What is an ice shelf?

Answer 31

A sheet of ice which floats on the oceans but is attached to the land

Question 32

What are the two major ice shelves in Antarctica?

Answer 32

The Ross (south west) and Ronne (north west) Ice Shelves

Question 33

What are the different land sections of Antarctica?

Answer 33

East Antarctica
West Antarctica
Antarctic Peninsula

Question 34

Name a research centre in Antarctica

Answer 34

Amundsen Scott (USA) at the South Pole

Question 35

What is the largest mountain in Antarctica?

Answer 35

Mount Vinson Massif