Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

WSET Diploma 3 Wines of the World > Germany > Flashcards

Germany Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
WSET ® Level 1 Spirits flashcards WSET ® Level 3 Spirits flashcards WSET ® Level 2 Wine flashcards WSET ® Level 1 Wine flashcards WSET ® Level 3 Wine flashcards WSET ® Level 2 Spirits flashcards WSET® Level 4 Wine flashcards
1
Q

What is the fundamental principle of German wine law?

A

the classification of grapes according to their must weight at harvest

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

what are the four levels of German wine, which are in increasing order of must weight?

A
  • Deutscher Wein (any style, grapes exclusively grown in Germany 8.5-15% abv),
  • Landwein (ie PGI, 8.5-15% abv, at least 85% grown in region on label)

Deutsche Wein and Landwein only 2% of total production

  • Qualitatswein (ie PDO, grapes from one of 13 quality wine regions - Anbaugebiete - which must appear on label)
  • Pradikatswein (PDO, stricter, grapes from one of 40 quality wine districts - Bereich, but not mandatory on label, though Anbaugebiete is)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Wine laws governing German Qualitatswein

A
  • Qualitatswein is a PDO (approx 70% total production)
  • (unless GG) most German dry is labelled “Qualitatswein trocken” and Pradikatswein is used for white/sweeter
  • grapes from one of 13 quality wine regions - Anbaugebiete - which must appear on label
  • 7% abv to allow for sweet wines, no upper limit, enrichment permitted
  • laboratory analysed and blind tasted before getting an AP number (Amtliche Prüfungsnummer - official test no.)
    • 10-12 digit number indicates where/when tasted, vineyard location, bottler’s specific lot number
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Why might a German, off-dry wine be labelled as ‘feinherb’?

A
  • because “fine dry” sounds better/ drier to consumers than “half dry”
  • ‘Feinherb’ (‘fine dry’) is not an official term, but describes wines that fall within the legal definition of halbtrocken and extends to wines with slightly higher levels of residual sugar
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Why is it difficult for consumers to tell how dry or sweet a German Auslese, Spatlese or Kabinett is; and what do some producers do about it?

A
  • because below Beerenauslese level, wines can be produced at all sweetness levels
  • so some producers use the EU labelling terms
    • trocken (dry)
    • halbtrocken (off-dry)
    • lieblich (medium/ medium sweet)
    • süss (sweet)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

wine laws governing German Prädikatswein (“distinction”)

A
  • PDO category, wines exclusively from Bereich (40) though not mandatory on label - Anbaugebieten is.
  • highest must levels, NO enrichment is permitted.
  • AP numbered (lab/ tasting panel etc)
  • any grape variety (though usually Riesling)
  • voume depends on vintage (usually 1/2 Qualitatswein, but can get close in best years)
  • Six levels of increasing must weight - Kabinett, Spatlese, Auslese, Beerenauslese, Eiswein, Trockenbeerenauslese
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

What are the German sweetness levels (in residual sugar) corresponding to EU labelling terms?

A
  • trocken (dry) no more than 4g/l or up to 9g/l where residual sugar does not exceed total acidity by more than 2g/l, as is usually the case with Riesling
  • halbtrocken (off-dry) between 4 and 12g/l (or up to 18g/l where residual sugar does not exceed total acidity by more than 10g/l)
  • lieblich (medium/ medium sweet) 12-45g/l res sugar
  • süss (sweet) more than 45g/l res sugar
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

compare German Kabinett with Spatlese

A
  • Kabinett grapes with lowest must weights
  • lightest body/ highest acid, dry to med-sweet
  • min 7% abv (sweeter) to (no limit, but top dry usually 12%
  • light body, high acid, green apple, citrus, pear fruit
  • Spatlese fully ripened grapes (picked 2 weeks later)
  • again min 7%, also dry to med-sweet, higher alcohol
  • more concentrated, riper stone fruits (Riesling), fuller body
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

one card on German Auslese

A
  • specially selected, extra-ripe bunches (though can be machine-harvested and then hand-sorted)
  • even riper/ more concentrated flavours than Spatlese,
  • often honey characteristics and some botrytis (added complxity)
  • can be dry, but best usually sweet balanced by high acidity, can long bottle-age
  • min 7% abv (sweet), but often use EU labelling as well (not required by law) as wide range of must weights in this category
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

one card on German Beerenauslese (BA)

A
  • individually selected berries (must hand harvest)
  • must weights so high, wines always sweet, and min alcohol 5.5% (as for Eiswein & TBA)
  • fermentation long and slow, reaching only low abv
  • botrytis not mandatory, but common
  • Riesling very ripe and dried stone fruit
  • BA only produced in years suitable for noble rot (morning humidity, afternoon dry and warm)
  • v low yields, v labour intensive, v little made
  • rare, outstanding, super-premium
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

one card on German Trockenbeerenauslese (TBA)

A
  • must weights so high, berries must be botrytised (need morning humidity, afternoon dry and warm)
  • shrivelled (“dried”) raisin-like grapes produce tiny amounts of highly concentrated sweet wines, yet still balanced by high acidity, giving long life.
  • min alcohol 5.5%, but fermentation long and slow, rarely reaching beyond 8%
  • v low yields, v labour intensive, under 100 bottles
  • only made in suitable years
  • most expensive wines made in Germany
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

one card on German Eiswein

A
  • Pradikat status 1982, same minimum must weights as TBA, but picked when frozen sub -7oC, any time from Nov (us Dec) and Feb: vintage is start of harvest
  • must also be pressed whilst frozen (no artificial freeze)
  • grapes must be fully healthy (any rot amplified by concentration of freezing)
  • waiting for freeze often lose some/all crop to disease/ predators (some plastic sheet to protect until freeze)
  • Riesling high acidity, intense pure peach/grapefruit
  • rare, premium
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

climate of Germany

A
  • cool continental (Baden south warmer) 49-50oN - extreme
  • 500-800m rain: summers wet - fungal risk, (but little rain at harvest)
  • Autumn long, dry - long cool ripening retains acidity, allows development of high natural sugar levels for Pradikatswein
  • noble rot can occur in every region (and also not!)
  • margins important - best sites steep, stony slopes, facing south to maximise heat and sunlight
  • rivers can reflect sun to help ripen, air movement from flowing water protects v frost
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

there are 13 anbaugebieten (principal wine-producing regions) in Germany. What do WSET identfiy as the top 9?

In size order

A
  1. Rheinhessen (25%, lots of bulk)
  2. Pfalz (20%+, bulk some better)
  3. Baden (reds)
  4. Württemberg (light fruity reds)
  5. Mosel (some of world’s best Rieslings)
  6. Franken (Sylvaner)
  7. Nahe
  8. Rheingau (small, prestigious)
  9. Ahr (northerly but mainly black)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

one slide on Pfalz

A
  • 2nd largest region, continuation of Alsace vineyards
  • narrow 80km n of French border, lie east of Haardt Mts (continuation of Vosges), so driest region of Germany
  • Riesling, Muller-Thurgau, Grau & Weissburgunder, but 40% black, Dornfelder & Spatburgunder
  • GG wines Riesling, Weissburgunder or Spatburgunder
  • most famous vineyards around Mittlehaardt (Forst & Deidesheim) - steep slopes to west of villages make ripe fuller bodied Riesling, but mainly drier styles
  • significant producers incl Dr Bürklin-Wolf
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

4 things about German wine

A
  1. MUST WEIGHTS (grapes classified at harvest)
  2. Cool climate (little oak)
  3. Riesling
  4. Spatburgunder (PInot Noir)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

grape growing in Mosel (includes tributaries Saar & Ruwer)

A
  • northerly region, site selection crucial for ripening
  • steep, south facing slopes overlooking Mosel
    • best sun, (some) reflection from river
    • dark slate soil radiates heat
    • soils grey, blue, brown & red - subtle differences
  • topography means working vineyards labour/expensive
  • low yields of sweetest wines adds to cost
  • Saar & Ruwer a bit higher and cooler, so acid even higher: sheltered south facing slopes best
  • flatter sites, eg Piesport, for less complex, esp Muller Thurgau, bottled by merchant houses
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

10 rock star Mittel Mosel vineyards (village name first) and one from Saar

A
  • Brauneberg (Juffer, Juffer-Sonnenuhr)
  • Erden (Treppchen, Prälat)
  • Graach (Himmelreich, Domprobst)
  • Ürzig (Würzgarten)
  • Wehlen (Sonnenuhr)
  • Bernkastel (Doctor)
  • Piesport (Goldtröpfchen)
  • SAAR (Schwarzhofberg)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Mosel is famous for producing the world’s greatest Rieslings? Is that all it does?

A
  • 90% white (Riesling 60%, but Muller Thurgau etc)
  • Moselland co-op in Bernkastel is the world’s largest producer of Riesling, making 20% of region’s wine
  • home to small prodcuers (eg Egon Muller, Markus Mollitor) but also major cos eg F W Langguth (Blue Nun and Erben), source wine elsewhere in Germany/ other countries
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

flavour profile of Mosel Riesling compared to other regions

A
  • paler in colour, lighter in body, lower in alcohol, higher in acidity
  • pronounced floral and green fruit aromas
  • balance of fruit and acid gives long ageing potential
  • famous for sweet styles in every Pradikats category
    • winters almost always cold enough for eiswein
  • drier wines on increase (GG must be 100% Riesling)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

what is unusual about Franken?

A
  • Silvaner (Sylvaner) is considered the most prestigious grape and planted more than Riesling (though most planted grape is Muller-Thurgau)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

one slide on Franken

A
  • most east, most continental - shorter season (spring frosts) warmer summers, cool autumns, harsh winters
  • Silvaner most prestigious, Muller Thurgau most planted
  • Silvaner early budding (but given best frost-free sites on River Main) early ripening (avoids cold autumns)
    • best sites s and s-e chalk slopes around Würzburg
    • full bodied dry floral and wet stone aromas
  • Rudolf Furst produces v g Spatburgunder on steep sandstone terraces in west Franken
  • Franken wines often use trad flask shaped Bocksbeutel
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

how do the best wines of Nahe differ from Mosel?

A
  • v slightly less acidity, but slightly riper fruit character as climate warmer (sort of half way between steely Mosel and fuller bodied Rheingau, Rheinhessen and Pfalz)
  • best wines Riesling (100% for GG) from vineyards on v steep s facing banks of River Nahe between Schlossböckelheim and Bad Kreuznach
  • soils slate and sandstone
  • eg Donhoff
  • Nahe is 75% white (30% Riesling, only 25% black grapes, led by Dornfelder)
24
Q

one slide on Baden

A
  • narrow 250km Heidelberg to Swiss border along east bank Rhine, opposite Alsace, in Vosges rainshadow
  • most southerly, warmest wine region, some oak use:
    • Germany’s fullest bodied, highest alcohol wines
    • best known for high quality reds (Spatburgunder)
    • high volume, inexpensive blends
    • also v good Grau & Weissburgunder, Chardonnay
    • some v good fuller bodied Riesling
  • 60% white, but Spatburgunder most, 2nd Muller Thurgau
  • 75% production co-ops (Badischer Winzerkeller huge)
  • many small estates eg Bernhard Huber
25
Q

why does Baden produce different styles of Spatburgunder?

A
  • split into many distinct bereiche (areas)
  • mainly e side of Rhine opp Alsace in rainshadow of Vosges. Most southerly, warmest, sunniest, driest.
  • varied soils and microclimates
  • full bodied, high alcohol, smoky, ripe fruits (often oak aged) on steep south facing slopes around Kaiserstuhl, ancient volcano
  • cooler areas eg bereich of Ortenau and those on calcareous soil bereiche of Tuniberg and Breisgau, more acidity, more delicate fruit flavours
26
Q

one slide on Württemberg

A
  • region around Stuttgart (south of Franken, east of Baden)
  • mainly light fruity reds for domestic markets from central co-op Möglingen
  • warm summers, so 70% black, Trollinger, Lemberger (Blaufranksich), Schwarzriesling (Pinot Meunier) Spatburgunder, (Riesling 15%)
  • potential export point difference: Lemberger with riper fruit, higher alcohol often oak aged
  • best sites on steep terraces above river Neckar
27
Q

what was the problem with most German crosses

A

they produced wines with a high level of sugar, but without the acidity or aromas to balance it

28
Q

which four German crosses can be considered a success?

A
  1. Muller-Thurgau (aka Rivaner) white (see sep card)
  2. Scheurebe (white) - can be full-bodied, ripe peach grapefruit with enough acidity to age/ also sweet wines
  3. Kerner (white) also high quality, high acid and some floral (like a second string Riesling)
  4. Dornfelder (black - see sep card) now the second most planted black grape in Germany
29
Q

one slide on Muller-Thurgau (aka Rivaner)

A
  • 2nd most planted white, early German cross between Reisling and Madeleine Royale (to ripen earlier)
  • earlier ripening than (late) Riesling, high yields anywhere
  • most planted grape in 70s & 80s, but plantings halved as Liebfraumilch unfashionable
  • med acidity means less structure/character, but attractive, simple floral/fruity aromas for early drinking
  • most planted grape in Franken (despite their love of Silvaner), big in Rheinhessen, Pfalz and most planted white in Baden (where Spatburgunder reigns)
30
Q

one slide on Silvaner (Sylvaner)

A
  • white, 7th most planted: plantings halved since 1980s, now stabilised (but overtaken by Grauburgunder and Weissburgunder)
  • lower acid and aromatics than Riesling
  • high volumes, inexpensive, subtle fruit from green to tropical
  • in Franken, where yields controlled and good sites, high quality, dry, medium(-) bodied wines with medium to medium (+) acidity and distinct earthy characteristics
31
Q

Dornfelder and its two styles

A
  • most successful black German cross (in 30 years 0 to 2nd most planted black behind Spatburgunder)
  • deep colour, high acidity, fruity and floral
  • two distinct styles
    • easy drinking, fruity, sour cherry & blackberry sometimes little resid sugar
    • lower yields, complex, more structured, ageworthy, fermented /aged in oak
  • most planted black in Rheinhessen and Pfalz
32
Q

compare Grauburgunder and Weissburgunder (Pinot Blanc) in Germany

A
  • both grown in popularity since 1990s, with sizeable plantings in Baden (warm), Rheinhessen and Pfalz
  • both can be v good quality, sometimes oak aged
  • Grauburgunder likes heavier soils, medium acidity, stone fruit and tropical (sometimes dried) fruit and honey. Range from dry med(-) body to fuller, sweeter (Ruländer)
  • Weissburgunder well-balanced wines with med(+) acid, delicate citrus and stone fruit aromas
33
Q

aside from having a suitable climate, why does the “Südliche Weinstrasse” in Pfalz tend to grow Pinot grapes (Spatburgunder, Grauburgundy and Weissburgunder)?

A
  • because, like Alsace, it has experienced periods of both German and French rule
  • a new generation are making good quality wines now in the fertile sandstone soils, traditionally an area for inexpensive wines
34
Q

overview of Rheinhessen

A
  • quarter of Germany’s vineyards, highest yields
  • relatively dry, warm, sheltered by mountains (Taunus and Hunsrück); vineyards on fertile valley floors - Liebfraumilch originated from Worms in s Rheinhessen
  • bulk production dominates (and still rising)
  • white grapes 70% (Riesling, then Muller-Thurgau and other crosses for inexpensive, also Silvaner, Grau& Weissburgunder)
  • black with 2 x Dornfelder than Spatburgunder
35
Q

Describe high quality wine areas and wine within bulk-dominated Rheinhessen

A
  • Rheinterrasse, steep vineyards on west bank around Nierstein and Oppenheim (east facing so warm morning sun at coolest part of day, enhancing ripeness; river moderates, extending ripening in evening and autumn, making ripe lemon and peach flavoured Rieslings)
    • part of Rheinterrasse around Nierstein and Nackenheim is Roter Hang (distinguished by Rotliegenden soil - iron rich, slate, clay, sandstone) adds smoky characteristics
  • Weingut Gunderloch is on terrasse, Keller near Worms,
36
Q

how does Rheingau’s climate and topography help it to make some of Germany’s highest quality, ageworthy Rieslings?

A
  • sits opposite Rheinhessen on north side of Rhine (south facing vineyards) & same with bit of the River Main
  • protected from cold north winds by Taunus Mountains
  • Rhine here is 1km across, so moderates, reducing frost and increasing humidity for botrytis
  • Rieslings fuller-bodied, riper fruits than Mosel
  • best vineyards on steep slopes; mid-slope for dry wines -river moderation, but far enough to avoid fungal humidity
  • soils range from sand, loam and loess in east around Hochheim to sandstone and slate further west.
37
Q

5 best villages for vineyards in Rheingau

A
  • Rudesheim
  • Geisenheim (home of famous research institute)
  • Johannisberg
  • Hattenheim
  • Erbach
38
Q

grapes in Rheingau

A
  • 85% white (nearly 80% Riesling)
  • majority dry (Rheingau started the dry trend), though also famed for its botrytised wines
  • west end near Assmannshausen, river turns north, steep south facing Höllenberg vineyard produces v good to outstanding Spatburgunder
39
Q

why are co-operatives less influential in Rheingau?

A
  • it was once the home of the German aristocracy
  • production mainly from estates and Rheingau home to famous eg Schloss Johannisberg, Schloss Vollrads, large state owned Kloster Eberbach
  • “Schloss” = castle/manor house
40
Q

one slide on Ahr

A
  • small, most northerly, yet black grapes 83%
  • unique microclimate; river Ahr cuts narrow sheltered valley steep south facing slopes and soil dominated by heat-retaining dark slate & greywacke (dark sandstone)
  • traditionally resid sugar late harvested black grapes, but now v good Spatburgunder
    • dry, q high tannins, spice notes from oak ageing
  • 3/4 co-ops, incl Mayschoss (1868, oldest in world), but some small estates notably Jean Stodden
41
Q

Germany’s wine exports including top 5 markets in value terms

A
  • export volume has halved this century, to 1m hL pa, but average price up by 50%, due to reduction in bulk exports and increase in bottled
  • 10% exported
  • USA
  • Netherlands (still drink Liebfraumilch)
  • Norway
  • UK (3rd in volume, also lingering Liebfraumilch)
  • China
42
Q

What is German wine’s promotional body and its remit?

A
  • Deutches Weininstitut (DWI)
  • promotes quality and sales of German wines in domestic and export markets
    • eg “Riesling Weeks” in 13 different countries to encourage retailers/ restaurants to promote Riesling for a defined period (from week to a month)
43
Q

importance of co-operatives in Germany

A
  • receive crop from 30% total vineyard area (but 3/4 of Baden and Württemberg)
  • on the decline, but often quality focussed with considerable grape-growing, wine-making expertise and technology eg Badischer Winzerkeller (one of biggest) has developed range of small volume, high quality
44
Q

the number of growers in Germany has decreased by 20% since 2010, yet the vineyard area has increased. Why?

A
  • because demand for inexpensive (bulk) wine from flatter valley sites
  • Germany likes beer, but 4th largest wine consumer (20mhL pa) - imports 15m hL pa
  • the cost of farming for sweet wines unsustainable against the prices some consumers will pay
45
Q

number of growers and average holding in Germany

A
  • 16000 growers (down 20% in 6 years from 2010)
  • 50% owning 3ha or less
46
Q

who makes Germany’s wine?

A
  • best wines made by estates who grow and vinify own
    • vary in size from family under 5ha to > 100ha
    • church: Schloss Johannisberg, Kloster Eberbach
    • aristocrats: Schloss Vollrads
    • charities: Bürgerspital, Juliusspital
    • new estates run by highly-skilled/ knowledgeable (German WI instituted Generation Riesling 2005 to give under 35s a national/international platform)
  • many growers sell to Weinkellerei (merchant houses), a main source of high-volume wines or to a co-operative
47
Q

Is enrichment allowed in German wine-making?

A
  • Yes, but not in Pradikat wines
  • common practice in bulk wine making, but increasingly rare elsewhere as climate change and improved wine-growing means consistently riper grapes
  • Most of Germany is in EU Zone A: can enrich up to 3%
  • Baden is in EU Zone B: can enrich up to 2%
48
Q

Is acidification common in German wine-making?

A
  • no, only in bulk wines
  • de-acidification is also permitted, but rare
  • neither are allowed in Pradikat wines
49
Q

what do German wine-makers use as fermentation vessels and why?

A
  • traditionally large old German oak casks, allow for some oxygenation (Mosel 1000l Fuder, Rhein 1200 oval Stück)
  • some still do, but now mainly stainless steel tanks
    • huge sizes, easy cleaning and temp control important for volume wines
    • does not introduce any oxygen or flavours, so still choice for mid-price & premium Riesling (& Sylvaner) wanting to preserve primary aromas
  • new oak rarely used for Riesling, but proportion of barriques poss for reds, Grau, Weiss & Chard
50
Q

how has sweet-wine making changed in Germany since the 60s and 70s?

A
  • all but v top Rieslings used to be fermented to dryness, then have sussreserve added, just before bottling, to the dry wine to the level of sweetness required
  • because the sussreserve has little or no alcohol, it slightly lowers the alcohol level of the final wine
  • this is still widely used in large commercial wineries, but now quality producers will use the traditional method of stopping the fermentation by adding SO2, racking or filtering
51
Q

can German sweet wines be made by adding RMGM?

(Rectified Concentrated Grape Must)

A
  • nothing above the basic level of Deutscher Wein
52
Q

what is Sussreserve and how is it made/used?

A
  • Sussreserve is a sweet juice made from unfermented/ partially fermented grape must traditionally used to sweeten dry German wines (still used in large commercial wineries, but creates less balanced wines)
  • must be of same region/quality as wine it will sweeten, so commonly from same must, pre-fermentation, SO2 added, chilled to maintain freshness and then added back to fermented dry wine just before bottling (so will lower alcohol somewhat, depending on amount and whether it had fermented at all)
53
Q

describe fermentation in Trockenbeerenauslese

A
  • because of the very high must weights, fermentation will be long and slow, taking several months
  • it will stop naturally due to the high sugar levels at between 5.5 and 8%
54
Q

why is the vast majority of German wine now made in dry (or off-dry) style?

A
  • consumer demand/ changing tastes
  • sweet wine very uneconomic (see above)
  • sweetening wine used to be a way of masking high acidity and bitterness from unripe grapes, but now much better at consistently ripening Riesling
55
Q

one slide on red wine making in Germany

A
  • varies depending on quality/price/style of wine desired
  • inexpensive wines for early consumption often go through thermovinification for quick extraction of colour and flavours. The wine is then fermented off the skins to produce a fruity red with low tannins. No oak.
  • for higher quality wines (esp Pinot Noir), cold maceration, whole bunch fermentation and maturation in oak are common
56
Q

one slide on rosé in Germany

A
  • 11% of sales (2018)
  • almost all domestic, sold below price of whites and reds
  • fruity, fresh, fermented in stainless steel at cool temps, bottled for early consumption
  • a very few from higher quality focussed producers, who may also age in oak barrels

WSET Diploma 3 Wines of the World (39 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions