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Genetics Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

examples of proteins

A

-structural proteins
-enzymes
-hormones

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2
Q

Function of DNA

A

-Hereditary material responsible for passing genetic information from cell to cell
-carries instructions to make proteins(only one strand codes for manufacture of protein(template strand)

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3
Q

How is DNA adapted

A

-stable molecule
-2 strands can separate
-large molecule that carries lots of information
-base pairings prevents corruptions from outside chemical or physical forces

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4
Q

What are the four bases

A

Adenine
Thymine
Cytosine
Guanine

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5
Q

What are the base pairings

A

Cytosine - Guanine(3 hydrogen bonds)
Adenine - Thymine(2 hydrogen bonds)

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6
Q

What are the molecules found in a repeat unit of a nucleotide

A

Phosphate(circle)
Deoxyribose(pentagon)
Base(rectangle)

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7
Q

What is a gene

A

A section of a molecule of DNA which codes for a specific protein by specifying order in which amino acids must be joined together

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8
Q

What do proteins do

A

Give us our features

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9
Q

What are alleles

A

-Variations of the same gene
-gives rise to differences in inherited chracteristics

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10
Q

What is the genome

A

All the DNA found in an organism

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11
Q

What is RNA

A

-a polynucleotide, made up of many nucleotides linked together in a long chain

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12
Q

Differences between DNA and RNA

A

-DNA is double stranded, RNA is single stranded
-the sugar of DNA is deoxyribose, RNA is ribose
-DNA has thymine but RNA has uracil instead(still binds to cytosine

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13
Q

What are the two types of RNA

A
  1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
  2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
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14
Q

chromosomes

A

thread-like structures of DNA carrying genetic information in the form of genes, located in the nucleus of cells

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15
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes does an ordinary human body contain

A

23 pairs of chromosomes = 46 in total

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16
Q

What are chromosomes

A

-when the DNA double helix supercoils to form structures called chromosomes(in the nucleus)

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17
Q

What is a homologous pair

A

-a chromosome pair(not identical)

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18
Q

where are chromosomes inherited from

A

one chromosome from a pair is inherited from each parent

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19
Q

what is protein synthesis

A

the process of turning a gene into a specific sequence of amino acids that make up a specific protein

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20
Q

What is transcription

A

DNA is transcribed and an mRNA molecule is produced

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21
Q

Why is transcription needed

A

-DNA cannot leave nucleus as it is too big
-Ribosomes are found in the cytoplasm
-a copy of the gene must be made and transferred out of the nucleus

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22
Q

What is translation

A

-mRNA is translated and an amino acid sequence(protein) is produced

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23
Q

What is the sequence of events in the transcription of DNA

A
  1. transcription occurs in the nucleus
  2. RNA polymerase attaches to the DNA in a non-coding region just before the gene
  3. two strands of DNA unzip by breaking weak hydrogen bonds. Done by the RNA polymerase enzyme
  4. RNA polymerase moves along DNA strand
  5. Free nucleotides form hydrogen bonds with exposed DNA strand by complementary base pairing
  6. mRNA is the opposite copy of DNA strand, mRNA is a complementary copy
  7. Newly formed strand is ready to leave the nucleus and travel to ribosomes which are located in the cytoplasm
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24
Q

where does transcription occur

A

in the nucleus of the cell

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25
Q

where does translation occur

A

occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell

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26
Q

process of translation steps

A

-mRNA arrives at ribosome
-mRNA has codons
-ribosome move long mRNA strand
-tRNA brings amino acid to ribosome
-anticodon binds with codon
-amino acid chain produced/polypeptide

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27
Q

phenotype

A

observable characteristics of an organism

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28
Q

Genotype

A

combinations of alleles that control each characteristic

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29
Q

dominant allele

A

an allele that is always expressed

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30
Q

recessive allele

A

allele that is expressed only when there is no dominant allele

31
Q

homozygous

A

if the two alleles of a gene are the same, the individual id described as homozygous

32
Q

heterozygous

A

if the two alleles of a gene are different, the individual id described as being heterozygous

33
Q

gamete

A

sex cells

34
Q

codominant

A

both alleles within a genotype are expressed in the phenotype of an individual

35
Q

genotypes of blood

A

Iᵃ Iᵃ or Iᵃ Iᵒ = A
Iᵇ Iᵇ or Iᵇ Iᵒ = B
Iᵃ Iᵇ = AB
Iᵒ Iᵒ = O

36
Q

polygenic

A

characteristics that are controlled by more than one gene

37
Q

example of polygenic inheritance

A

eye colour

38
Q

shape of male and female in family pedigrees

A

Male = Square
Female = Circle

39
Q

colour of affected and unaffected individuals in family pedigrees

A

Red = affected
Blue = unaffected

40
Q

male and female chromosomes

A

Male = XY
female = XX

41
Q

Mitoses

A

type of cell division that produces diploid body cells identical to parent cell

42
Q

use of mitosis

A

-growth
-repair of damaged tissues
-asexual reproduction
(-replacement of cells)

43
Q

order of meiosis and mitoses in terms of phases

A

interphase
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase

44
Q

interphase

A

-DNA in chromosomes replicate itself, ready for mitoses
-cell spends most of its life here

45
Q

prophase

A

-chromatids condense and become visible
-the nucleus membrane disappears

46
Q

metaphase

A

-structure called the spindle forms
-chromatids line up at the equator
-spindle attaches to them by their centromeres

47
Q

Anaphase

A

-Spindle fibres shorten and pull the chromatids into the poles of the cell
-Chromatids separate

48
Q

telophase

A

new membrane form around the chromosomes at each end of cell
-two new nuclei therefore forms
-cytoplasm starts to divide to produce two daughter cells
-both daughter cells have a copy of each chromosomes from the parent cell

49
Q

cytokinesis

A

the division of the cytoplasm at the end of meiosis or mitosis, bringing about the separation into two daughter cells

50
Q

meiosis

A

type of cell division that produces haploid gametes, genetically different to each other and parent cell

51
Q

differences between mitosis and meiosis

A

-mitoses produces cells with diploid number of chromosomes, meiosis haploid
-two daughter cells produced in mitosis, 4 in meiosis
-daughter cells are genetically identical to each other and parent cell in mitosis, daughter cells are genetically different from each other and parent cell in meiosis
-one cell division in mitosis, 2 in meiosis

52
Q

fertilisation

A

fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote

53
Q

zygote

A

single cell resulting from fusion of male and female gametes

54
Q

differentiation

A

the process by which cells become more specialised and different from each other as they mature

55
Q

what causes differentiation

A

involves the expression of some genes and not others

56
Q

stem cell

A

immature cell that has the potential to differentiate into a specialised cell type

57
Q

what can stem cells do

A

-differentiate into specialised cells
-divide repeatedly
-form more stem cells

58
Q

where are embryonic stem cells obtained from

A

extracted from very early embryos and are grown in laboratory incubators

59
Q

how to scientists make embryonic stem cells differentiate into the cell type that is required

A

add growth factor chemicals

60
Q

what type of cells can embryonic stem cells turn into

A

any type

61
Q

how are adult stem cells obtained

A

-extracted from body tissues and grown in laboratory cultures

62
Q

what type of cells can adult stem cells differentiate into

A

-a limited number of different cell types

63
Q

advantages of embryonic stem cells

A

-can make any cell type
-puts spare embryos from IVF to good use and can improve other people’s lives

64
Q

disadvantages of embryonic stem cells

A

-their use could be considered as killing a potential human life
-difficult to grow in a culture, production is inefficient
-difficult to make them differentiate into the right type of specialised cell, can result in cancer
-comes from donor so immune rejection can occur

65
Q

adult stem cell advantages

A

-no potential human lives destroyed
-if a patient’s own cells are used the body will not reject them
-differentiation process is easier to control as it has already started, less likely to cause tumours and cancers

66
Q

disadvantages of adult stem cells

A

-can be difficult and painful to extract
-cannot differentiate into all cell types

67
Q

stem cell therapy

A

use of stem cells to repair damaged tissues

68
Q

mutation

A

-rare, random change in genes or chromosomes

69
Q

how many codons are there for each amino acid

A

generally more than one

70
Q

what do mutations do

A

can cause a change in the base sequence

71
Q

what are the possible outcomes of a mutation

A

-neutral: the new codon can code for the same amino acid, protein stays the same and no change in the phenotype is seen
-harmful: the correct protein is no longer coded for
-advantage: can result in a benefit to the organism (antibiotic resistance DNA)

72
Q

Causes of Down syndrome

A

-failure of chromosome to separate
-gamete has extra chromosome
-normal egg fertilised by abnormal sperm

73
Q

Causes of Down syndrome

A

-failure of chromosome to separate
-gamete has extra chromosome
-normal egg fertilised by abnormal sperm

Biology (14 decks)

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