General Terms Flashcards
Systemic observation
The careful observation of the natural world with the aim of better understanding it.
- track, analyze, and organize information about the natural world
Science
use of systemic observation to acquire knowledge.
Empirical method
Approaches to inquiry that are tied to actual measurement and observation.
Hypothesis
a logical idea that can be tested
Theories
groups of closely related phenomena or observations
Peer report measure example
ask close friends and family members about the happiness of a target individual
Memory measures examples
recognition, recall, relearning
Biological measures examples
saliva, cholesterol levels, blood pressure, glucose levels
How old is Psychology?
barely 150 years old
- most legit findings made in last 60 years
cognitive behavioural therapy
a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behaviour therapy (changing behaviour)
organizational psychology
an I/O psychology subfield that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change
Why Study Psych?
- To understand ourselves
- To understand other people and groups
- To be better able to influence others, for example, in socializing children or motivating employees
- To learn how to help others better and improve the world, for example, by doing effective psychotherapy
- To learn a skill that will lead to a profession such as being a social worker or a professor
- To learn how to evaluate the research claims you hear or read about
Because it is interesting, challenging, and fun!
People want to learn about psychology because this is exciting in itself, regardless of other positive outcomes it might have.
Why do we see movies? Because they are fun and exciting, and we need no other reason.
Thus, one good reason to study psychology is that it can be rewarding in itself.
Data
In research, information is systematically collected for analysis and interpretation.
induction
To draw general conclusions from specific observations.
sample
In research, a number of people are selected from a population to serve as an example of that population.
Define accuracy (Scientific Theory Feature)
Explanations and theories match real-world observations
Define consistency (Scientific Theory Feature)
A theory has few acceptions and shows agreement with other theories within and across disciplines
Define scope (Scientific Theory Feature)
The extent to which a theory extends beyond currently available data, explaining a wide array of phenomena
Define simplicity (Scientific Theory Feature)
A simpler hypothesis/argument is preferred of all
Fruitfulness (Scientific Theory Feature)
The usefulness of the theory in guiding new research by predicting new, testable relationships
Pseudoscience
Ideas or beliefs with the appearance of science but not created with the scientific method
Define falsified
In science, the ability of a claim to be tested and—possibly—refuted; is a defining feature of science.
Probability
measurement of the degree of certainty (likelihood) that a particular event will occur
inductive reasoning
yields generalizations that are based on a large number of specific observations
deductive reasoning
is a general principle which leads to a specific conclusion.
(Proven)
representative
RepresentativeIn research, the degree to which a sample is a typical example of the population from which it is drawn.
anecdotal evidence
Derived from personal observation and experience
population
all the people in a particular group
correlation
relationship between two or more variables
Null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST)
the chances are that an alternative hypothesis would produce a result as extreme as the one observed if the null hypothesis were true.
distribution of data
In statistics, the relative frequency that a particular value occurs for each possible value of a given variable.
Define Type I error
Rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true
- the researcher concludes there is a relationship between two variables but, in reality, there is not.
Define Type II error
The null hypothesis is accepted when it should have been rejected
- the data fail to show a relationship between variables that actually exist.
Define p-value
The probability that data were obtained by random error or chance. e.g. p<0.05= less than 5% chance.
Define scientific theory
well-tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations and hypotheses, and enables scientists to make accurate predictions about new situations
- well supported
objective
Free from personal/ bias opinion
Define fact
an objective and verifiable truth about the world
Define levels of analysis
In science, there are complementary understandings and explanations of phenomena.
Define causality
the relationship between cause and effect
generalization
ability to take a strategy used with one task and apply that strategy to a new task
Define Epistemology
study of knowledge
Define Empiricism
the theory that all knowledge is derived from sense-experience
- based on experience & and observation
Define Rationalism
The belief that reason is the chief source of knowledge
Define Existentialism
Every person creates their own meaning of life
The earliest record of psychological experiments?
Pharaoh Psamtik I, Egypt, 7th century BC
Define Psychophysics
Study of the relationships between physical stimuli and the perception of those stimuli.
Define introspection
A method of focusing on internal processes.
the examination or observation of one’s own mental and emotional processes
Define consciousness
Awareness of ourselves and our environment
Define mental chronometry
Reaction time
Define Structuralism
A school of American psychology that sought to describe the elements of conscious experience.
- contents of the mind
Eugenics
The practice of selective breeding to promote desired traits.
Define Gestalt Psychology
An attempt to study the unity of experience.
- Precursor to cognitive psychology
Define cognitive psychology
The study of mental processes
Define flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant event
(What were you doing JFK?)
Define the tip of the tongue phenomenon
The inability to pull a word from memory even though there is the sensation that that word is available.
Define validity
Validity is the degree to which a measure is assessing what it is intended to measure
Define p-value
The probability that data were obtained by random error or chance. e.g. p<0.05= less than 5% chance.
The probability of observing a particular outcome in a sample, or more extreme, under a conjecture about the larger population or process.
Define sample
The collection of individuals on which we collect data.
Define population
A larger collection of individuals that we would like to generalize our results to.
Define generalization
Related to whether the results from the sample can be generalized to a larger population.
- can we use the results to apply what we learned to a larger population?
What is the margin of error?
The expected amount of random variation in a statistic; often defined for 95% confidence level.
What is the climber study?
Baby chooses between helper and hinderer of a person struggling to get up
Define reliability
consistency of a measure
Define cause and effect conclusion
Related to whether we say one variable is causing changes in the other variable, versus other variables that may be related to these two variables.
Define distribution
The pattern of variation in data.
Define the level of significance
A result is statistically significant if it is unlikely to arise by chance alone
typically around 0.05
- We want p-value under this level
What is the GSS?
General Social Survey
- monitor societal trends in America every other year
Define random sample
Using a probability-based method to select a subset of individuals for the sample from the population.
Define random assignment
each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group
What are the two most common types of psychological research?
Experimental Research
Correlation Research
Define operational definition
How researchers specifically measure a concept.
Define independent variable
The variable the researcher manipulates and controls in an experiment.
Define dependent variable
The variable the researcher measures but does not manipulate in an experiment.
Define confounds
Factors that undermine the ability to draw causal inferences from an experiment.
What is the placebo effect?
Just knowing causes a change in behaviour
What is participant demand?
When a research participant behaves in a way that she/he thinks the experiment wants them to behave.
What is a double-blind procedure?
both subjects and the experimenter do not know who has been assigned to which group in order to prevent bias or which condition the participant is in
Define correlation research
When scientists passively observe and measure phenomena
- you can examine only two variables at a time, no more and no less.
Define correlation
Measures the association between two variables, or how they go together.
What is a positive correlation?
both variables increase or decrease together
What is a negative correlation?
as one variable increases, the other decreases
Define narrative analysis
Listening to people/cultures telling stories and analyzing what that means
Define quasi-experimental design
An experiment that does not require random assignment to conditions.
Define longitudinal study
research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period
What is the “gold standard” in psychology?
A study is conducted in a laboratory experiment
- controlled conditions
Define internal validity
The degree to which a cause-effect relationship between two variables has been unambiguously established.
Define external validity
The degree to which a finding generalizes from the specific sample and context of a study to some larger population and broader settings.
Define ecological validity
extent to which an experimental situation mimics a real world situation
Define experience-sampling method
A methodology where participants report on their momentary thoughts, feelings, and behaviors at different points in time over the course of a day.
Define ecological momentary assessment
An overarching term to describe methodologies that repeatedly sample participants’ real-world experiences, behavior, and physiology in real time.
diary method
A methodology where participants complete a questionnaire about their thoughts, feelings, and behavior of the day at the end of the day.
What is the gold standard for studying daily life?
Experience sampling and related momentary self-report methods
Define DRM - day reconstruction method
A methodology where participants describe their experiences and behaviour of a given day retrospectively upon a systematic reconstruction on the following day.
Define white coat hypertension
A phenomenon in which patients exhibit elevated blood pressure in the hospital or doctor’s office but not in their everyday lives.
Define ambulatory physiological monitoring
Monitoring physiological reactions as people go about their daily lives
Define ambulatory assessment
assessment of behaviour, physiology, experience, and environments of humans in NATURALISTIC settings.
Define linguistic analysis
A quantitative text analysis methodology that automatically extracts grammatical and psychological information from a text by counting word frequencies.
Define behavioural genetics
The empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behaviour.
Define the adoption study
A behaviour genetic research method that involves the comparison of adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents.
Define twin studies
A behaviour genetic research method that involves a comparison of the similarity twins.
Define quantatative genetics
Scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms. (How related they are) How related are you to your twin, sibling, cousin, parent, extended family
define heritability coefficient
An easily misinterpreted statistical construct that purports to measure the role of genetics in the explanation of differences among individuals.
0 - 1
Define evolution
How something changes over time.
Is it’s definition changing?
Define natural selection
Differential reproductive success as a consequence of differences in heritable attributes.
Define adaptations
Evolved solutions to problems that historically contributed to reproductive success.
Describe intrasexual selection
A process of sexual selection by which members of one sex compete with each other, and the victors gain preferential mating access to members of the opposite sex.
Describe intersexual selection
Intersexual selection, also called mate choice, individuals of one sex (usually female) are choosy in selecitng their mates from the other sex. Female’s choice depends on the male’s appearance or behavior
A process of sexual selection by which evolution (change) occurs as a consequences of the mate preferences of one sex exerting selection pressure on members of the opposite sex.
the human sexual selection is known as
mutual mate choice
Define psychological adaptations
Mechanisms of the mind that evolved to solve specific problems of survival or reproduction; are conceptualized as information-processing devices.
Ex. threat flirting with a mate
What is Sexual strategies theory?
men and women look for different qualities in their mates because they faced different problems in the evolutionary cycle
What is error management theory?
evolution of how we think, make decisions, and evaluate uncertain situations when there is no clear answer on how we should behave
Can we chance being wrong about our decision?
“cost asymmetries”
whenever uncertain situations present us with a safer versus more dangerous decision, we will psychologically adapt to prefer choices that minimize the cost of errors.
Define gene
segment of DNA that codes for a specific polypeptide or protein or an observable inherited trait.
How similar is every human’s DNA
99.9%
What is phenotypic plasticity?
the ability of one genotype to produce more than one phenotype when exposed to different environments
Define epigenetics
Heritable changes in gene function without changes to the base sequence of DNA.
Epigenetic marks include covalent DNA modifications and post translational histone modifications.
Define phenotype
physical characteristics of an organism
an observable characteristic or trait of an organism, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, or behaviour.
What is an epigenome?
a multitude of chemical compounds that can tell the genome what to do
The genome-wide distribution of epigenetic marks.
All the cells in our body are genetically…
identical
DNA is wrapped around…
8 proteins called histones
Define genotype
The DNA content of a cell’s nucleus, whether a trait is externally observable or not.
Define DNA methylation
Covalent modifications of mammalian DNA occur via cytosine methylation, typically in the context of the CpG dinucleotide.
What are DNA methyltransferases?
Enzymes that establish and maintain DNA methylation using methyl-group donor compounds or cofactors. The main mammalian DNMTs are DNMT1, which maintains methylation state across DNA replication, and DNMT3a and DNMT3b, which perform de novo methylation.
powerful regulatory mechanism that ensures that genes are expressed only when needed.
What are histone modifications?
Posttranslational modifications of the N-terminal “tails” of histone proteins that serve as a major mode of epigenetic regulation. These modifications include acetylation, phosphorylation, methylation, sumoylation, ubiquitination, and ADP-ribosylation.
What is neural plasticity?
Ability of the brain to change neural pathways to compensate for changes.
Define perceptual learning
Occurs when aspects of our perception change as a function of experience.
Define implicit learning
Occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express.
Define implicit memory
A type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to encode. It’s the type of memory one makes without intent.
Ex. lyrics to the song
Define nonassociative learning
Occurs when a single repeated exposure leads to a change in behaviour.
ex. the best boxers don’t close their eyes when being hit
Define habituation
Occurs when the response to a stimulus decreases with exposure.
ex. no longer aware of touch to water when submerged into it
Define sensitization
Occurs when the response to a stimulus increases with exposure
Ex. annoying laugh starting to piss you off
Define classical conditioning
Describes stimulus-stimulus associative learning.
Stimulus pairing
Define operant conditioning
Describes stimulus-response associative learning.
punishment & reinforcement
About how many pieces of information can one typically hold in working memory at a time?
Between 5 and 9 individual pieces of information
Define chunk(ing)
The process of grouping information together using our knowledge.
Define encoding
The act of putting information into memory.
Define incidental learning
Occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express.
Define intentional learning
Any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention.
Define metacognition
Describes the knowledge and skills people have in monitoring and controlling their own learning and memory.
Define transfer-appropriate processing
A principle that states that memory performance is superior when a test taps the same cognitive processes as the original encoding activity.
Define working memory
The form of memory we use to hold onto information temporarily, usually for the purposes of manipulation.
Define conditioned stimulus
An initially neutral stimulus (like a bell, light, or tone) that elicits a conditioned response after it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
Define unconditioned stimulus
In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits the response before conditioning occurs.
Define conditioned response
The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place.
Define unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before (or in the absence of) conditioning.
instrumental / operant conditioning
Describes stimulus-response associative learning.
operant behaviour
A behavior that is controlled by its consequences. The simplest example is the rat’s lever-pressing, which is controlled by the presentation of the reinforcer.
punishment and reinforcement
Define reinforcer
Any consequence of a behavior that strengthens the behavior or increases the likelihood that it will be performed it again.
Define punisher
A stimulus that decreases the strength of an operant behavior when it is made a consequence of the behavior.
What is taste aversion conditioning
(classical)
The phenomenon in which a taste is paired with sickness, and this causes the organism to reject—and dislike—that taste in the future.
Define fear conditioning
(classical)
A type of classical or Pavlovian conditioning in which the conditioned stimulus (CS) is associated with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US), such as a foot shock. As a consequence of learning, the CS comes to evoke fear. The phenomenon is thought to be involved in the development of anxiety disorders in humans.
Define conditioned compensantory response
In classical conditioning, a conditioned response that opposes, rather than is the same as, the unconditioned response. It functions to reduce the strength of the unconditioned response. Often seen in conditioning when drugs are used as unconditioned stimuli.
What is a prediction error?
When the outcome of a conditioning trial is different from that which is predicted by the conditioned stimuli that are present on the trial (i.e., when the US is surprising). Prediction error is necessary to create Pavlovian conditioning (and associative learning generally). As learning occurs over repeated conditioning trials, the conditioned stimulus increasingly predicts the unconditioned stimulus, and prediction error declines. Conditioning works to correct or reduce prediction error.
What is preparedness?
The idea that an organism’s evolutionary history can make it easy to learn a particular association. Because of preparedness, you are more likely to associate the taste of tequila, and not the circumstances surrounding drinking it, with getting sick. Similarly, humans are more likely to associate images of spiders and snakes than flowers and mushrooms with aversive outcomes like shocks.
What is extinction?
Decrease in the strength of a learned behavior that occurs when the conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or when the behavior is no longer reinforced (in instrumental conditioning). The term describes both the procedure (the US or reinforcer is no longer presented) as well as the result of the procedure (the learned response declines). Behaviors that have been reduced in strength through extinction are said to be “extinguished.”
Define spontaneous recovery
Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning.
What is context?
Stimuli that are in the background whenever learning occurs. For instance, the Skinner box or room in which learning takes place is the classic example of a context. However, “context” can also be provided by internal stimuli, such as the sensory effects of drugs (e.g., being under the influence of alcohol has stimulus properties that provide a context) and mood states (e.g., being happy or sad). It can also be provided by a specific period in time—the passage of time is sometimes said to change the “temporal context.”
Define stimulis control
When an operant behavior is controlled by a stimulus that precedes it.
Define discrimnatiative stimulis
In operant conditioning, a stimulus that signals whether the response will be reinforced. It is said to “set the occasion” for the operant response.
Define categorize
To sort or arrange different items into classes or categories.
What is quantitative law of effect
A mathematical rule that states that the effectiveness of a reinforcer at strengthening an operant response depends on the amount of reinforcement earned for all alternative behaviors. A reinforcer is less effective if there is a lot of reinforcement in the environment for other behaviors.
REM sleep is most closely associated
memory consolidation
process sensory receptors respond and convey information to brain
sensation
What does oxitocen hormone
love hormone, cuddle hormone
Cortisol hormone does what?
stress hormone, weight gain, cravings, decreased response time
reinforcer devaluation effect
The finding that an animal will stop performing an instrumental response that once led to a reinforcer if the reinforcer is separately made aversive or undesirable.
Goal directed behaviour
Instrumental behavior that is influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the association between the behavior and its consequence and the current value of the consequence. Sensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect.
habit
Instrumental behavior that occurs automatically in the presence of a stimulus and is no longer influenced by the animal’s knowledge of the value of the reinforcer. Insensitive to the reinforcer devaluation effect.
who are social models?
Authorities that are the targets for observation and who model behaviors.
Albert Bandura’s “Bobo doll experiment.”
children act like social model
agressive social model = agressive kids
gentle = gentle
vicarious reinforcement
Learning that occurs by observing the reinforcement or punishment of another person.
Aaron has been using heroin at his friend Luca’s apartment. One night Aaron takes the same dose of heroin when he is home alone, and nearly dies from an overdose. Which phenomenon related to classical conditioning explains why this happened?
conditioned compensatory response
Define knowledge emotions
A family of emotions associated with learning, reflecting, and exploring. These emotions come about when unexpected and unfamiliar events happen in the environment. Broadly speaking, they motivate people to explore unfamiliar things, which builds knowledge and expertise over the long run.
Define functionalist theories of emotion
Theories of emotion that emphasize the adaptive role of an emotion in handling common problems throughout evolutionary history.
Define surprise
Evaluations that relate what is happening in the environment to people’s values, goals, and beliefs. Appraisal theories of emotion contend that emotions are caused by patterns of appraisals, such as whether an event furthers or hinders a goal and whether an event can be coped with.
Define interest
An emotion associated with curiosity and intrigue, interest motivates engaging with new things and learning more about them. It is one of the earliest emotions to develop and a resource for intrinsically motivated learning across the life span.
What is Intrinsic motivation
Learning that is “for its own sake”—such as learning motivated by curiosity and wonder—instead of learning to gain rewards or social approval.
Define trait curiosity
Stable individual-differences in how easily and how often people become curious.
What is openness to experience
One of the five major factors of personality, this trait is associated with higher curiosity, creativity, emotional breadth, and open-mindedness. People high in openness to experience are more likely to experience interest and awe.
Define confusion
An emotion associated with conflicting and contrary information, such as when people appraise an event as unfamiliar and as hard to understand. Confusion motivates people to work through the perplexing information and thus fosters deeper learning.
What is impasse driven learning
An approach to instruction that motivates active learning by having learners work through perplexing barriers.
What is awe?
a state of fascination and wonder
What is accomodation?
Changing one’s beliefs about the world and how it works in light of new experience.
What are chills
A feeling of goosebumps, usually on the arms, scalp, and neck, that is often experienced during moments of awe.
How do emotions promote learning?
They then motivate us to engage with the new things that strain our understanding of the world and how it works. Emotions surely aid fighting and fleeing, but for most of the hours of most of our days, they mostly aid in learning, exploring, and reflecting.
What does impasse-driven learning entail?
confusion is beneficial for learning
