General Anatomy and Biology Flashcards
What is anatomy?
The structure of organisms
What is physiology?
The functions and activities of organisms
Describe the structure of the human body from atom to human being
- Atoms come together to form…
- Molecules, which come together to form an…
- Organelle, which comes together with other organelles to form a…
- Cell, a group of cells working together come together to form a…
- Tissue, tissues working together and to perform a similar function form an…
- Organ, a group of organs working together to perform a specific function form an…
- Organ system, a group of organ systems working together to perform different duties to maintain life make a…
- Human being
What is a cell?
A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all organisms
What are the three main parts of the cell?
- The cell membrane
- Cytoplasm
- Nucleus
What is the cytosol?
The fluid that stores organelles and allows transport of molecules
What is cytoplasm?
Cytoplasm is the cells organelles + cytosol
What is the double membrane that surrounds the nucleus?
The nuclear envelope
What is the endomembrane system (EMS)?
The endomembrane system is responsible for packaging, modifying and transporting proteins and lipids
What do nuclear pores do?
Nuclear pores allow transport of proteins and molecules in and out of the cell
What does the nucleus do?
It is the site of DNA replication and it holds the cell’s DNA.
What are nuclesomes?
Nucleosomes are DNA wrapped around histones
What is a chromatin?
A chromatin is a group of eight histones that have DNA wrapped around them. It is essentially condensed nucleosomes that gather together and form chromatin.
What shape are chromosomes when the cell is not replicating?
They are straight and not x-shaped
Where are ribosomes assembled.
The nucleolus has RNA which is responsible for protein synthesis
What molecules do ribosomes synthesize?
They synthesize proteins, their location determines whether proteins leave or stay in the cell.
How many membranes do mitochondria have?
Mitochondria have a double membrane like the nucleus
Is the mitochondria part of the EMS?
The mitochondria is not part of the EMS
What does the mitochondria do?
It is the site of ATP synthesis from food
What is the cristae?
The cristae is the inner curled layer of the mitochondrial membrane
What is stored in the cristae?
Proteins for ATP synthesis
What is the fluid in the mitochondria called?
The mitochondrial matrix
What is stored in the fluid in the mitochondria?
Ribosomes and mitochondrial DNA
How do humans inherit mitochondrial DNA?
They inherit it from their mothers
What is the endosymbiont theory?
The endosymbiont theory says that mitochondria are alien to animals and may have developed from prokaryotic cells hence the presence of DNA in them
What is DNA outside the nucleus called?
Extrachromosomal DNA
What are the two types of endoplasmic reticulum?
Rough and smooth
What is the function of the endoplasmic reticulum?
To synthesize molecules that go to the other parts of the cell
Is the Endoplasmic Reticulum part of the EMS?
Yes
How many membranes does the ER have?
One
Why is the rough endoplasmic reticulum called rough?
It has ribosomes
What is the function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum?
The rough endoplasmic reticulum synthesizes and modifies proteins for transport to other parts of the cell.
Why is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum called smooth?
It has no ribosomes
What is the function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?
The function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum is lipid synthesis
How does the smooth endoplasmic reticulum help with toxins?
It helps with detoxification of cells
What are the transport vesicles?
The transport vesicles transport molecules to parts of the cell
Are transport vesicles part of the EMS?
Yes
What is exocytosis?
Exocytosis is the transporting of materials outside the cell
How many membranes does the golfi apparatus have?
One
What is the cisternae?
The cisternae are flat folds of the Golgi apparatus
What are the two faces of the golgi?
Trans face and the cis face
What is the function of the cis face of the Golgi apparatus?
The cis face of the Golgi accepts transport vesicles from the rough endoplasmic reticulum
What is the function of the trans face of the Golgi apparatus?
The trans face of the Golgi apparatus sorts and transports modified proteins and lipids to other parts of the cell or to be excreted
What does the center of the Golgi do?
The center of the Golgi modifies molecules by adding extra chemicals to them
How does the Golgi ensure that modified molecules end up in the right place?
By encoding vesicles with signaling sequences to determine where the final product should be transported
What is responsible for sorting vesicular transport in the cell?
COP I, COP II and Clathrin protein coated complex vesicles
What direction do COP I coated vesicles head in?
Retrograde, from the cis Golgi to the Rough endoplasmic reticulum
What direction do COP II coated vesicles head in?
Anterograde, from the Rough endoplasmic reticulum to the cis Golgi
What direction do the clathrin coated vesicles head in?
Trans Golgi to lysosomes and receptor mediated endocytosis which brings new stuff in the cell
What is the function of both lysosomes and peroxisomes?
Digesting matter within the cell
Are lysosomes part of the EMS?
Yes, they are membrane bound
What type of enzymes do lysosomes have?
They have hydrolitic enzymes
What is the function of lysosomes?
Lysosomes break down cellular matter and molecules using hydrolitic enzymes
What is the process of autophagy?
Autophagy is the digestion of a cells matter using lysosomes
What is the process of phagocytosis?
Phagocytosis is the breakdown of matter from outside the cell using lysosomes
What is the process of autolysis?
Autolysis is the process of cell death that occurs when lysosomes release hydrolitic enzymes into the cell
When does autolysis occur?
It occurs when a cell is injured or diseased
Are peroxisomes part of the EMS?
No, despite being membrane bound
Through what process do peroxisomes break down molecules?
Oxidation
What material do peroxisomes form?
They form hydrogen peroxide by stealing hydrogen from substrates using enzymes
What material do peroxisomes breakdown with enzymes?
Hydrogen peroxide broken down into water and oxygen
What part do peroxisomes play in detoxification?
They neutralize toxins in the cell
What substance do peroxisomes metabolize?
They metabolize fatty acids
What happens to the substance that is metabolized by peroxisomes?
The metabolized fatty acids are used in energy production for the cell
Which cell components manufacture some lysosomes?
Cell membrane and Golgi apparatus
What is another name for the cell membrane?
Plasma membrane
What is the inside of the cell called?
Intracellular membrane
What is the outside of the cell called?
The extracellular membrane
What does the “fluid” of the “fluid membrane mosaic mode” mean?
The contents is the cell membrane are always moving
What does the “mosaic” of the “fluid mosaic model” mean?
It means the cell membrane has lipids carbs and proteins or more than one substance
Describe the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane
Hydrophilic head
Hydrophobic tail
What function does cholesterol play in the cell membrane?
The cholesterol stabilizes the phospholipids in the cell membrane
How does cholesterol regulate membrane fluidity at different temperatures ?
By making cell membrane more fluid at low temps and keeping it from becoming more fluid at high temps
How does cholesterol prevent harmful materials from accumulating in the cell?
It fills in the gaps of the phospholipid bilayer preventing harmful substances from entering
What is the third type of fatty cell in the membrane?
Sphingolipids
What is a caveat about the use and number of sphingolipids in the cell?
Their use and number depends on cell type
What is the type of lipids found in the fluid membrane?
Lipid rafts
What material are lipid rafts high in?
They are high in both cholesterol and sphingolipids
How does the high presence of cholesterol and sphingolipids affect the speed of lipid rafts?
It slows down their movement
What part does the speed of lipid rafts play in protein attachment?
They aid in protein attachment and cell signaling
What are flippases?
Flippases are enzymes that use ATP to change the direction of phospholipids from one end of the plasma membrane to the other
What are transmembrane proteins?
They are cell membrane proteins that occur in the entire cell membrane
What types of transmembranes proteins are available?
Channel
Transporters
Receptors
What do transmembrane proteins do?
They connect the cytosol to the extracellular environment
What are embedded proteins?
Embedded proteins are proteins found in both the cell membrane and intracellular membrane
What are both transmembrane and embedded proteins referred to as?
Integral proteins because they are built into the cell membrane
What is another name for peripheral proteins?
Membrane associated proteins
Describe the location of the peripheral proteins
Peripheral proteins are not fully integrated into the inner cell membrane or free flowing in the cytoplasm they are bound the the phospholipid bilayer or trans membrane proteins
Where are carbohydrates found?
Extracellular matrix
How are carbs found in the cellular membrane?
They bind themselves to lipids or proteins to make glycolipids or glycoproteins
What function do carbohydrates play in the cells?
They help with cell signaling
How do cells use carbohydrates to communicate?
They can tell what type of cell a cell is based on the carbohydrate group attached to the cell. E.G different blood groups have different types of carbohydrate groups
What is a chromosome?
A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and protein in cells that contains many genes, regulatory elements and other nucleotide sequences and DNA-bound proteins.
What is an autosome?
An autosome is any chromosome not considered to be a sex chromosome or not involved in sex determination
What is RNA?
RNA stands for ribonucleic acid which consists of long, single chains of chemical bases along a sugar phosphate backbone.
Why is RNA transported from the nucleus into the cytoplasm?
It is transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm in order to direct the formation of proteins
What is a ribosome?
Ribosomes are granular, cytoplasmic organelles composed of RNA.
What do ribosomes do?
Ribosomes provide enzymes that link amino acids for protein synthesis.
What is histology?
The microscopic study of tissues
What is a gland?
An organ that contains special cells that secrete substances.
What is a unicellular gland?
Glands that consist of only one cell
What are multicellular glands?
Glands that may be classified on the basis of:
-structure (simple or compound),
-type of secretion(mucous, serous or mixed),
-presence or absence of ducts(exocrine or endocrine),
-characteristics of secreting units(alveolar or acinar)
-manner of secretion(merocrine, apocrine or holocrine)
What is a goblet cell?
A goblet cell is a unicellular exocrine gland. Goblet cells produce mucus in digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts
What is connective tissue?
Tissue that:
-connects,
-protects,
-supports, and
-forms a framework for all body structures.
What type of tissues are considered connective tissues?
-Loose fibrous tissue
-Adipose tissue
-Dense fibrous tissue
-Cartilage
-Bone
-Blood
What is loose fibrous tissue?
Tissue that fills spaces in the body and binds structures together
What is adipose tissue?
A specialized form of loose fibrous tissue that provides insulation. It is typically called fat.
What is dense fibrous tissue?
Connective tissue that forms tendons and ligaments
What is cartilage?
A hard, dense connective tissue consisting of cells embedded in a matrix that can withstand considerable pressure and tension.
What is the function of cartilage?
-provides support,
-a framework, and
-attachment
-protects underlying tissues
-forms structural models for many developing bones
What doesn’t cartilage contain?
It does not contain nerves or blood supply
What are the three types of cartilage?
-Hyaline
-Fibrous
-Elastic
What is bone?
A hard, connective tissue consisting of specialized cells embedded in a matrix of hardened mineral salts.
What is blood?
The only type of connective tissue that is liquid, composed of cells suspended in a fluid matrix called plasma.
What is nervous tissue?
Tissue found in the brain, spinal cord and nerves
What is the fundamental unit of bone called?
Haversian system or osteon
What is a muscle tissue?
Tissue that provides movement,
Maintains posture
Produces heat
What is muscle tissue composed of?
Elongated muscle fibers that can contract and thereby move body parts
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue?
-Cardiac
-Skeletal
-Smooth
Where in the body is skeletal muscle found?
Skeletal muscle is found attached to bones and is controlled voluntarily.
Where in the body is smooth muscle found?
Smooth muscle lines the walls of hollow internal organs
Of the three muscle types, which is not striated?
Smooth muscle
Where in the body is cardiac muscle found?
It is found in the heart
Of the three types of muscles which are controlled involuntarily?
What is a sarcoma?
A sarcoma is a malignant tumor that is formed in the connective tissue.
What are the types of epithelial tissue?
-Simple squamous
-Simple cuboidal
-Simple columnar
-Stratified squamous
-Transitional
What is simple squamous tissue?
Single layer of thin, flat cells
Where is the location of simple squamous tissue?
Alveoli of the lungs, capillary walls
What is simple cuboidal tissue?
Single layer of cube-shaped cells
Where is the location of simple cuboidal tissue?
Ovary, thyroid gland
What is simple columnar tissue?
Single layer of tall cells
Where is simple columnar tissue found?
Intestines, stomach
What is stratified squamous tissue?
Several layers of cells with flat cells at the free surface
Where is stratified squamous tissue found in the body?
-Skin
-Vagina
-Anus
What is transitional tissue?
Transitional tissue is tissue that is specialized to change in response to increased tension
What happens to transitional tissue during distention?
The cells become thinner
Where is transitional tissue found?
Urinary Bladder
What is merocrine secretion?
It is a secretory cell that remains intact during secretion
Where are cells with merocrine secretion found?
-Salivary glands
-Certain sweat glands
-Pancreatic glands
What is apocrine secretion?
Pertaining to a secretory cell that contributes part of its protoplasm to the secretion
Where are cells with apocrine secretions located in the body ?
-Mammary glands
-Certain sweat glands
What is holocrine secretion?
Pertaining to a secretory cell that produces secretions consisting of altered cells of the same glands
Where in the body are cells that have holocrine secretions found?
Sebaceous glands
What is a membrane?
A membrane is a layer of tissue that lines the bodies cavities, covers organs or separates structures
What is a membrane?
A membrane is a layer of tissue that lines the bodies cavities, covers organs or separates structures
What is another name for skin?
The cutaneous membrane
What is the epithelial membrane?
Epithelial membranes consist of epithelial tissue and the connective tissue attached to it
What are the epithelial membranes found in the body?
Serous and mucous membranes
What are serous membranes?
Serous membranes are a single layer of squamous cells that line closed body cavities resting on a thin layer of connective tissue
Where are serous membranes found in the body?
-The pleura
-The peritoneum
-The pericardium
What are the connective tissue membranes of the human body?
Synovial membranes and the meninges
What are the meninges?
The three membranes that cover the brain and spinal cord.
What are the membranes of the three meninges?
From outermost to innermost:
-dura mater
-arachnoid
-pia mater
What is an adenoma?
An adenoma is a benign tumor of the epithelial cells
What is an adenocarcinoma?
A malignant tumor that originates in the glandular eoithelium
What are the four types of tissues found in the human body?
- Epithelial tissue
- Connective tissue
- Muscle tissue
- Nervous tissue
What is epithelial tissue?
Epithelial tissue is tissue that covers the external and internal surfaces of the body
Where is epithelial tissue found?
1.Skin
2.Kidney tubules
3.Intestines
4.Nasal passages
5.Lining of blood vessels
6.inner lining of organs
7.neck of uterus
8.endocrine and exocrine glands
What are the two types of epithelial tissue?
Surface and glandular
What is the apical surface of the body?
The surface of the cell that faces the external environment
What is the basal surface of the cell?
This is the part of epithelial cells that interact with the basement membrane
What is the lateral surface of the cell?
They are the sites where adjacent cells interconnect
What are microvilli?
Microvilli are protrusions of the cell membrane that serve to increase the apial surface for absorption.
Which surfaces are microvilli normally on?
Surfaces that want to increase absorption like the small intestines
Why do we say epithelial cells exhibit polarity?
They have three different regions which are all different in structure and function.
What are microvilli good for?
They are good for increasing the surface area of a cell
What are cilia good for?
-Removal of foreign substances from epithelial surface
-Transportation of signals from the extracellular matrix to the intercellular space
-Fetal development
What are stereocilia good for?
-Absorption
-Mechano-sensory reception
What are the three types of cilia?
-motile
-non-motile
-nodal
What are basal cells attached to?
They are attached to the basement membrane
What is the basal lamina?
The basal lamina is another name for the basement membrane
What is the basal lamina made of?
- Glycoprotein (laminin, perlecan, entactin)
- Collagens
What is the reticular lamina?
It is collagen’s fibers that connect the basal lamina to the connective tissue underneath?
What is the basal lamina + reticular lamina called?
Basement membrane
In what form are epithelial tissue typically found?
Epithelial cells are typically found in sheets
What are epithelial cells commonly bound with?
Intercellular junctions
What are the types of intracellular junctions between epithelial cells?
- Tight junctions
- Gap junctions
- Desmosomes
- Hemidesmosomes
What are tight junctions?
Intercellular junctions that block the space between cells making them impassable
What are desmosomes?
Desmosomes connect the cytoskeletons of adjacent cells
What are gap junctions?
Passage ways between adjacent cells that allow the transfer of molecules between adjacent cells
What are anchoring junctions?
A cell matrix junction that anchors the cell to the basement membrane
Why are epithelial cells considered avascular?
That means they have no blood vessels but receive nutrients via diffusion from the blood vessels of the lamina propria
What is the lamina propria?
A layer of connective tissue that attaches to the basal surface of the basement membrane. It holds the epithelial tissue that is glued to the deep tissue and contains blood vessels that nourish the epithelial tissue
Why are epithelial cells considered innervated?
They are supplied with nerve endings
Why do epithelial cells regenerate quickly?
They have a high mitotic rate meaning they divide quickly when damaged which allows them to constantly replace old cells
What are simple epithelial cells?
One layer of epithelial cells laying on a basement membrane
What are stratified epithelium?
They are two or more layers of epithelial cells
What is the typical shape of epithelial cells?
Hexagonal with varying height depending on type of cell
What are squamous cells?
They are flat, scale like epithelial cells
What are cuboidal epithelial cells?
They are cube shaped epithelial cells
What are columnal epithelial cells?
They are cells that look like columns
What are simple squamous epithelial cells used for?
It is good for passing molecules through diffusion
Where are simple squamous epithelial cells found?
- Bowman’s Capsule
- Lung Alveoli
- Endothelium
- Mesothelium
What are simple cuboidal epithelial cells good for?
Protection and secretory, absorption and excretory functions.
What are simple columnar epithelial cells good for?
Protection, Secretion, Absorption and Excretory functions.
Where are simple columnar epithelial cells found in the body?
- Brain
- Intestines
- Gallbladder
- Stomach
- Inner enamel epithelium
- Respiratory Tract
What are pseudo stratified columnar epithelium cells good for?
Secretion and protection
Where are pseudo stratified columnar epithelium cells found in the body?
- Paranasal Sinus
- Nasal Cavity
- Nasopharynx
- Trachea
- Bronchi
What are stratified squamous epithelium cells good for?
Protection and abrasion against water loss
What are the two types of stratified squamous epithelial cells?
- Keratinized
- Non- keratinized
What are the two types of stratified squamous epithelial cells?
- Keratinized
- Non- keratinized
What is the difference between stratified keratinized squamous epithelial cells and stratified non-keratinized epithelial cells?
Non keratinized cells do not desquamate(to peel off as in scales)
Where are stratified squamous epithelial cells found?
- Vagina
- Anal canal
- Larynx
- Outer layer of Cornea
- Oral cavity
- Esophagus
What are stratified cuboidal epithelium cells good for?
Protective tissue layer
Where are stratified cuboidal epithelium cells found in the body?
- Sweat glands
- Large ducts of excretory glands
- Anorectal junction
- Ovarian follicles
What are stratified columnar epithelium cells good for?
Secretory and protective functions
Where are stratified cuboidal epithelium cells found in the body?
- Conjuctiva of the eye
- Ampullae in the inner ear
- Retina of the eye
- Largest ducts of exocrine glands
- Organ of Corti
- Taste buds
What are transitional epithelium good for?
Good for organs that distend as these cells can change shape to accommodate distending
Where are transitional epithelium cells found in the body?
- Urinary tract (some parts)
- Renal calcyes
- Ureters
- Urinary bladder
What are glandular epithelium good for?
Specialized to pick up substances from the blood and modify them into a product that is then released from the cell
What are the two types of glands?
- Endocrine and Exocrine glands
- Multicellular and Unicellular glands
What is homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the processes that an organism undergoes in order to maintain a stable internal environment as changes occur in the outside.
What is homeostatic regulation?
It is the process by which organisms maintain homeostasis by making constant changes and monitoring changes in conditions.
What three things are needed for homeostatic regulation?
- A receptor
- A control center
- An effector
What is the receptor part of the homeostatic regulation?
It is a receptor that receives information about a change in the environment
What is the control center part of homeostasic regulation?
It receives and processes the information from the receptor
What is the purpose of the effector part of homeostatic regulation?
It responds to signals from the control center by either opposing or enhancing the stimulus.
What is the signal sent by the homeostatic regulation effector called?
It is called feedback
What two types of feedback are there to respond to changes in the environment of an organism in order to maintain homeostasis?
- Positive feedback
- Negative feedback
What is negative feedback?
Negative feedback is when the effector opposes a stimulus and reverses the direction of change. E.g when it is cold outside, the body responds by producing heat.
What is positive feedback?
Positive feedback occurs when the effector reinforces the stimulus. The effector amplifies the effect of the stimulus. E.g during childbirth, the baby’s head presses on the cervix releasing oxytocin, the release of oxytocin stimulates stronger contractions and leads to wider dilation of the cervix until the baby is pushed out.
Which type of feedback is more popular in the body?
Negative feedback.
Why is positive feedback not always a welcome response to a stimulus in the body?
It leads to imbalance in the internal environment e.g when a high fever continues to rise.
