Gender Differences

Question 1

Gender in Silicon Valley?

Answer 1

• Some men said they feel “subjugated” by feminists
• Radical sub-group wanted to start a separatist men-in-tech movement
• Many agreed with Damore’s memo
• Also widespread anger; Damore was fired

Question 2

Why is gender differences such a dangerous topic?

Answer 2

• Acceptance of gender differences in ability could promote discrimination
• If young children believe in differences, could inhibit success/hard work -> self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 3

Gender difference in math and science?

Answer 3

Varies by culture
- Most prominent in USA, where culture distastes that math is not “cool” for girls

In the 1980s, American middle-school
boys outperformed girls, at the highest
ability level, by 13 to 1. Now, it’s 3 to 1.

Gender difference only emerges after
elementary school
– When math gets harder, boys are
encouraged to push through

Question 4

But, what about the progress of science?

Answer 4

• Do we need to talk about the possibility of gender differences in order to learn the scientific truth?
• Or, does this kind of conversation inherently promote problematic gender differences?

Question 5

UBC research addressed scientific gender differences issue? (Dar-Nimrod & Heine, 2006 (Science))

Answer 5

Question: Does telling women that they
are genetically worse at math lower their
math performance?
– If so, can we counteract this effect by telling
them:
A) no real gender difference
B) there is a difference, but it’s due to environmental causes

1. Female pp read an essay
   – Condition 1: Essays argue for a gender difference in
   math, due to genetic factors (Summers condition)
   – Condition 2: Essays argue for gender difference in
   math, due to experiential factors (Spelke condition)
   – Condition 3: No essay, but prime gender (standard
   stereotype threat)
   – Condition 4: Essays argue for no gender
   difference
   * 2. Pp do math test, performance assessed

Question 6

Gender Difference Study: Results?

Answer 6

Telling women that gender differences is due to genes hurts their performance
- Lack of control

Why does telling them that it’s due to life experiences solve the problem?
- Agency, rise above the circumstances

Question 7

Gender Differences in Personality? (postive effects mean men > women)

Answer 7

Extraversion
- Gregariousness -.15
- Assertiveness .50
- Activity .09

Agreeableness
- Trust -.25
- Tender-mindedness -.97
- Aggressiveness 0.40-.89 (depending on measure)

Conscientiousness
- Order -.13

Emotional Stability
- Anxiety -.28
- Impulsiveness 0.06

Openness
- Ideas 0.3

Question 8

Gender Differences in Emotion?

Answer 8

Women experience more negative emotions
- Greater frequency
- Greater intensity

Women score higher on measures of empathy

Question 9

Is there a gender difference in aggression?

Answer 9

Until age 2, No!
– In fact, some evidence that aggression is more
common in play groups dominated by girls

• By age 4 or 5, boys show higher aggression
• By adolescence, boys are much more aggressive
  – And more conduct problems, higher delinquency
• Conduct disorders are 6-10 times more common in boys
• Men commit more crime across cultures

Question 10

Homicide trends in the US?

Answer 10

Males were almost 10 times more likely
than females to commit murder in 2002

• Male offender/Male victim 65.1%
• Male offender/Female victim 22.6%
• Female offender/Male victim 9.9%
• Female offender/Female victim 2.4%

Question 11

TV viewing and aggression?

Answer 11

Men view more violent TV than women, and there is a correlation between how much violent TV is consumed by age 8 the seriousness of the criminal act by age 30

Question 12

Explaining the gender difference in aggression?

Answer 12

Girls show aggression differently than boys

Overt aggression (male)
- Physical assaults (hitting) and verbal assaults (yelling, insulting)

Relational aggression (female)
- Excluding others; withdrawing acceptance; spreading false rumors
- Mean Girls Model

Question 13

Gender Differences in self-esteem?

Answer 13

Overall men have higher self-esteem overall.

No gender difference in kids, but in puberty both drop but women’s drop much more, and pretty much stay that way their whole life, until old age where both genders self-esteem go up

Question 14

Why do girls show a greater self-esteem decline than boys?

Answer 14

Girls’ self-confidence fairly high until age 11 or 12
- Assertive about feelings

During adolescence, many girls accept stereotyped notions of how they should be
- Repress true feelings
- Adopt a “nice: and women-like-self-presentation

Question 15

Gender Difference in Body Image?

Answer 15

Idealized standards of beauty may contribute to girls’ declining self-esteem

Girls’ bodies change with puberty, making it much harder to maintain the idealized body type presented by the media

Question 16

Body image and girl’s self-esteem decline, experimental and quasi-experimental evidence? Review of 222 studies over the past 50 years (Feingold & Mazzella, 1998)

Answer 16

– Men have a more positive body image than
women
– Gender difference was larger for more recent
studies

Experimental evidence
Exposure to media showing thin body ideal linked to lower self-esteem

Quasi-experimental evidence
Introduction of American TV in Fiji increased prevalence of eating disorders in adolescent girls, and led to more negative body image

Hypothesis: Girls in countries that begin receiving magazines depicting idealized body images will show larger decline in self-esteem during adolescence

Question 17

Gender Roles definition?

Answer 17

Popular conceptions of gender, which may influence behavior

Question 18

Sex differences vs. Gender-Roles?

Answer 18

Sex Differences
– Actual differences between males and females in personality traits, self-esteem, aggression, achievement, etc.

Gender-Roles (sometimes considered gender identity)
– Stereotypes or beliefs about what it means to be a “man” or a “woman”
– Socialization of boys and girls to act in “gender appropriate” or sex-stereotypical ways
– Development of gender identity

Question 19

Reserach on Gender Roles? - The Study of androgyny

Answer 19

A politically motivated search to separate sex roles and biological sex

Masculinity and femininity
– Personality dimensions
– Men and women can be high or low on both (or either)
– Masculinity: Instrumentality, assertiveness, dominance
– Femininity: nurturance, emotional expression, empathy

Question 20

Are masculinity and femininity sex-related dimensions?

Answer 20

Now typically studied as instrumentality and expressiveness

Gender schemata:
– Cognitive orientations that lead people to process information through a sex-linked perspective

One study found that variation in gender-typical behaviors is partly due to genetic variance
– In women, 38% of variance in gender-typical behaviors due to genes
– Genes for sex-typical behaviors -> but these genes are not necessarily linked to biological sex

Question 21

Sterotypes about Gender?

Answer 21

Highly consistent across cultures

Men:
– Aggressive, autonomous, achievement-oriented, dominant, exhibitionist, persevering
– INSTRUMENTAL / AGENTIC

Women:
– Affiliative, deferent, nurturant, self-abasing
– COMMUNAL

Stereotypes converge with actual sex differences, but are larger (exaggerated)

Question 22

The three components of gender stereotypes?

Answer 22

Affective component
Positive or negative feelings that result from categorization
* i.e., sexism, preference for one gender over the other

Behavioral component
Treating people differently because of their social category
* E.g., job discrimination
* E.g., teachers giving more attention to boys

Cognitive component
Social categories (e.g., ‘dads’, ‘soccer moms’)

Question 23

Prejudice Against Women As Leaders (Eagly & Karau, 2002)?

Answer 23

Gender stereotypes:
- Men are dominant, assertive, foreceful, and tkae charge
- Women are nice, friendly, socially skilled, sensitive

Leader Role Stereotype:
Leaderas are self-confident, assertive, take charge, solve problems, inspire others

Incongruity:
- Men and Leaders match
- Women and Leaders do not match

Prejudice:
Lowered evaluations of women as actual or potential leaders

Question 24

Theories of Gender Differences? Socialization theory + Supporting evidence

Answer 24

Boys and girls are raised differently
Fits with Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
- Children observe and learn from same-sex parent

Evidence supports this theory:
- Parents encourage dependency in girls more than boys
- More physical play with boys
- Socialization differences replicate across cultures

Question 25

Limitations of socialization theory?

Answer 25

• Why do parents raise boys and girls differently?
• Why does it replicate across cultures?
• Can’t account for cases of gender dysphoria due to incorrectly assigned gender (Lik the case of Bruce and Brian Reminer and Dr. Money)

Question 26

Dr. Money and the Theory of “Gender Gate”?

Answer 26

Argued that before the age of 2, children’s gender is fluid

Bruce Reimer presented an opportunity to test the theory on someone born male
– Botched circumcision (1966); Money convinced parents to surgically reassign Bruce’s gender
– After surgery, Dr. Money became famous
– Supported idea that gender is a social construction

Question 27

The lives of Brenda and Brian?

Answer 27

But, Brenda Reimer (formerly Bruce) was not a happy girl
– Hated dolls, liked running and fighting
– Had few friends

Finally, at age 13, both twins were told the truth
– Brenda rejoiced, became “David”, and eventually married
– Brian freaked out, became schizophrenic, drug problems
– Both twins eventually committed suicide

Question 28

Theories of Gender Differences? Hormonal Theories

Answer 28

Sex differences due to different hormones
- Men have higher testosterone than women

Hormonal influences on sex differences begin in utero
- Congenital Adrenal Hyperlasia (CAH)
* Female fetus has overactive adrenal gland, hormonally masculinized
* Prefer “male” toys
* But – criticisms have been raised about which toys are considered “male”
– Does not include puzzles, Lincoln logs
– Inconsistent across studies

Question 29

Other evidence for hormonal theories?

Answer 29

In women, higher testosterone is linked with
– Pursuing a more ‘masculine’ career
– Greater career success
– Greater dominance and aggressiveness

Female prison inmates with more disciplinary infractions have higher testosterone

More rambunctious frat boys have higher testosterone

Men with higher testosterone have higher sex drive

Women have higher drive when T peaks

Question 30

Conclusions on sex and gender roles?

Answer 30

There are, on average, major biological differences between males and females
- Some of these may be evolved, occur in-vitro
- Influence personality

Cultural stereotypes about gender also shape personality and behaviour (gender roles)

It is often difficult to know whether a particular gender difference is biological or socially learned

Question 31

What about when gender identity does not match both gender? (Olson and colleagues)

Answer 31

Tested whether transgender kids (age 5-12) show cognitive associations more similar to cisgender kids of same bio gender or same gender identity

Results: Transgender kids indistinguishable from cis kids who share same gender identity