Gender Bias (Issues and Debates) Flashcards
Universality and bias
Universality: any underlying characteristic of human beings which is capable of being applied to all
psychology attempts to conduct research that is objective and value free
however, psychologists possess beliefs and values that are influenced by the social and historical contexts in which they live
his may then influence their research, findings and conclusion
this can undermine the universality of the research (it being applied to all human beings)
(examples of gender bias) biomedical theories of abnormality
biomedical theories of abnormality
• abnormal behaviour explained in terms of neurochemical/hormonal processes
• higher prevalence of depression in women explained in hormonal terms, not social/environmental (violence,unpaid labour, discrimination)
• ‘Is it your hormones?’
(examples of gender bias) use of standardised procedures in research studies
• women and men might respond differently to research situation
• women and men might be treated differently by researchers
• could create artificial differences or mask real ones
(examples of gender bias) dissemination of research results
• publishing bias towards positive results
• research that finds sex differences are more likely to get published than that which does not
• exaggerates extent of sex differences
• more men are published than women
Alpha bias
• when the differences between men and women are shown and may be exaggerated. Either to heighten the value of men or women, or devalue them.
• These differences are presented as real and enduring, fixed and inevitable.
Freud- an example of Alpha Bias
• reflecting the culture in which he lived, men were more powerful and more educated and regarded as superior to women. Freud viewed femininity as failed masculinity- he exaggerated the difference between males and females.
• Josselson (1988) points out “In his theory women are seen as being inferior to men as they are jealous of men’s penises and because they cannot undergo the same Odeipus conflict as boys . Because the superego develops from the conflict women must therefore be morally inferior because they have a weaker identification with their mother.
Sociobiological theory- an example of Alpha Bias
• Wilson (1975)- sociobiological theory of relationship formation focuses on ‘survival efficiency’
• it believes that it is in a male’s interest to try and impregnate as many women as possible as this will guarantee that his genes will be passed down through generations
• for the female her best chance is to endure a healthy survival of her offspring which would guarantee that her genes are passed on
• sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined, while women who engage in similar activity are seen as going against their nature
• this is exaggerating the differences between men and women (alpha bias)
Beta Bias
• when differences between the two sexes are ignored or minimised or underestimated
• this often occurs when female participants are not included as part of the research process and it is then assumed that the research findings apply equally to both sexes
Fight or Flight response- an example of Beta Bias
• Early research into fight or flight was based exclusively on male animals and was assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation
• however, Taylor et al (2000) suggested that female biology has evolved to inhibit the fight or flight response, shifting attention towards caring for offspring and forming defensive networks with other females
Kohlberg (1973)- an example of Beta Bias
• his stage theory of moral development was based entirely on a longitudinal study of a sample of American men
• though he argued his findings were universal and represented the moral reasoning of both men and women
• claimed women generally reached lower levels of development (androcentrism)
Androcentrism
(institutional sexism)
• centred or focused on men, often to the neglect or exclusion of women
• is a consequence of beta bias
• if our understanding of ’normal’ behaviour is being drawn from research that involves all male samples, then behaviour that deviates from this is seen as ‘abnormal’ by comparison
• female behaviour is misunderstood and underrepresented
Premenstrual syndrome- an example of Androcentrism
• PMS- feminist object to this as they believe that it is a social construct which stereotypes and trivialise the female experience
• it suggests that female anger is due to hormones whereas male anger is a rational response to external pressure
Freud- an example of Androcentrism
• as girls do not experience castration anxiety in the phallic stage, not under the same pressure to identify with the same-sex parent
• female then forms a weaker superego and so her sense of morality is inferior to a males
• femininity is an expression of failed masculinity
• vanity- a defence mechanism to make up for sexual inferiority to men
Impacts of gender biases on society
-females discriminated against
• less likely to be selected for jobs
• (because of above) less likely to apply for jobs
-females can’t cope with situations throughout the working month (time of the month), menstrual leave?
• exacerbates difference in perception between men and women
Gynocentrism
some studies are conducted only on females but their results are generalised to males
Estrocentrism: theories focused on women which exclude men