Gender Bias (Issues and Debates)

Question 1

Universality and bias

Answer 1

Universality: any underlying characteristic of human beings which is capable of being applied to all

psychology attempts to conduct research that is objective and value free

however, psychologists possess beliefs and values that are influenced by the social and historical contexts in which they live
his may then influence their research, findings and conclusion
this can undermine the universality of the research (it being applied to all human beings)

Question 2

(examples of gender bias) biomedical theories of abnormality

Answer 2

biomedical theories of abnormality
• abnormal behaviour explained in terms of neurochemical/hormonal processes
• higher prevalence of depression in women explained in hormonal terms, not social/environmental (violence,unpaid labour, discrimination)
• ‘Is it your hormones?’

Question 3

(examples of gender bias) use of standardised procedures in research studies

Answer 3

• women and men might respond differently to research situation
• women and men might be treated differently by researchers
• could create artificial differences or mask real ones

Question 4

(examples of gender bias) dissemination of research results

Answer 4

• publishing bias towards positive results
• research that finds sex differences are more likely to get published than that which does not
• exaggerates extent of sex differences
• more men are published than women

Question 5

Alpha bias

Answer 5

• when the differences between men and women are shown and may be exaggerated. Either to heighten the value of men or women, or devalue them.
• These differences are presented as real and enduring, fixed and inevitable.

Question 6

Freud- an example of Alpha Bias

Answer 6

• reflecting the culture in which he lived, men were more powerful and more educated and regarded as superior to women. Freud viewed femininity as failed masculinity- he exaggerated the difference between males and females.
• Josselson (1988) points out “In his theory women are seen as being inferior to men as they are jealous of men’s penises and because they cannot undergo the same Odeipus conflict as boys . Because the superego develops from the conflict women must therefore be morally inferior because they have a weaker identification with their mother.

Question 7

Sociobiological theory- an example of Alpha Bias

Answer 7

• Wilson (1975)- sociobiological theory of relationship formation focuses on ‘survival efficiency’
• it believes that it is in a male’s interest to try and impregnate as many women as possible as this will guarantee that his genes will be passed down through generations
• for the female her best chance is to endure a healthy survival of her offspring which would guarantee that her genes are passed on
• sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined, while women who engage in similar activity are seen as going against their nature
• this is exaggerating the differences between men and women (alpha bias)

Question 8

Beta Bias

Answer 8

• when differences between the two sexes are ignored or minimised or underestimated
• this often occurs when female participants are not included as part of the research process and it is then assumed that the research findings apply equally to both sexes

Question 9

Fight or Flight response- an example of Beta Bias

Answer 9

• Early research into fight or flight was based exclusively on male animals and was assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation
• however, Taylor et al (2000) suggested that female biology has evolved to inhibit the fight or flight response, shifting attention towards caring for offspring and forming defensive networks with other females

Question 10

Kohlberg (1973)- an example of Beta Bias

Answer 10

• his stage theory of moral development was based entirely on a longitudinal study of a sample of American men
• though he argued his findings were universal and represented the moral reasoning of both men and women
• claimed women generally reached lower levels of development (androcentrism)

Question 11

Androcentrism

Answer 11

(institutional sexism)
• centred or focused on men, often to the neglect or exclusion of women
• is a consequence of beta bias
• if our understanding of ’normal’ behaviour is being drawn from research that involves all male samples, then behaviour that deviates from this is seen as ‘abnormal’ by comparison
• female behaviour is misunderstood and underrepresented

Question 12

Premenstrual syndrome- an example of Androcentrism

Answer 12

• PMS- feminist object to this as they believe that it is a social construct which stereotypes and trivialise the female experience
• it suggests that female anger is due to hormones whereas male anger is a rational response to external pressure

Question 13

Freud- an example of Androcentrism

Answer 13

• as girls do not experience castration anxiety in the phallic stage, not under the same pressure to identify with the same-sex parent
• female then forms a weaker superego and so her sense of morality is inferior to a males
• femininity is an expression of failed masculinity
• vanity- a defence mechanism to make up for sexual inferiority to men

Question 14

Impacts of gender biases on society

Answer 14

-females discriminated against
• less likely to be selected for jobs
• (because of above) less likely to apply for jobs
-females can’t cope with situations throughout the working month (time of the month), menstrual leave?
• exacerbates difference in perception between men and women

Question 15

Gynocentrism

Answer 15

some studies are conducted only on females but their results are generalised to males

Estrocentrism: theories focused on women which exclude men

Question 16

Gilligan and moral development

Answer 16

(an example of gender bias)
-highlighted bias inherent in Kohlberg’s work
-suggested women make moral decisions in a different way to men (care ethic vs justice ethic)
-arguably also (alpha) biased, as males and females moral reasoning is more similar than this suggests

Question 17

Karen Horney

Answer 17

stated it was wrong to think females envious to men’s attributes but they were jealous of their social class
she coined the term ‘womb envy’ in which males were envious of females ability to have children and compensated for that by achieving in other domains

Question 18

Addressing gender bias

Answer 18

feminist perspective
• re-examining the ‘facts’ about gender
• view of women as normal humans, not deficient men
• skepticism towards biological determinism
• research agenda focusing on women’s concerns
• a psychology for women, rather than a psychology of women

Question 19

(Evaluations of gender bias) Implications of gender bias

Answer 19

• gender-biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practice
• it may provide scientific ‘justification’ to deny women opportunities both in the workplace and society
• Tavris (1993): it becomes normal for women to feel abnormal
• it may therefore have lasting and damaging consequences for real women

Question 20

(Evaluations of gender bias) Institutional sexism

Answer 20

• lack of women at senior level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the research questions asked
• lab experiments have female participants and male researchers, this may have implications
• Nicholson (1955): this creates an inequitable relationship with male researchers where they could be labelled
• Denmark et al (1988): psychology is institutionally sexist and creates bias in theory and research

Question 21

(Evaluations of gender bias) Reflexivity

Answer 21

• modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on the nature of their work
• rather than see bias as a problem they embrace it and see it as a critical aspect of the research process
• Dambrin and Lambert (2008): reflected on their own gender related experiences in their research
• reflexivity is an important development in psychology and has led to greater awareness of the role of personal bias in research

Question 22

(Evaluations of gender bias) Essentialism

Answer 22

• many sex differences are based on the essentialist perspective that gender differences are fixed and enduring
• these can often politically motivated ‘facts’ that create double-standard
• sociobiological theory can support this

Question 23

(Evaluations of gender bias) Feminist Psychology

Answer 23

Worrell (1992) stated that a number of criteria should be adhered to in order to avoid gender bias:
• women should be studied in real life context
• they should genuinely participate in research
• they should not be objects of study
• diversity within groups of women should be examined as opposed to differences between men and women