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Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

What is sex?

A

The biological status of someone, either male of female. Determined by chromosomes or anatomy

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2
Q

What is gender

A

A persons psychosexual status as either masculine or feminine. Influenced by society and culture

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3
Q

The batista boys

A

They had four daughters who at puberty changed into boys. Their vaginas closed over, they developed testicles and grew normal sized penises. All were able to adjust to their new roles as boys with ease

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4
Q

What is a sex role stereotype?

A

A shared set of beliefs and expectations about what is acceptable male and female behaviour

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5
Q

What is androgyny?

A

A personality trait where a person has a balance of masculine and feminine traits

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6
Q

How is androgyny measured?

A

On Bem’s sex role inventory

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7
Q

What is Bem’s sex role inventory?

A

20 masculine traits
20 feminine traits
20 neutral
you must rate yourself 1-7 on each
(1 = never true of me)
(7 = always true of me)

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8
Q

What are the 2 scales on Bem’s sex role inventory

A

Masculine - Feminine
Androgynous - undifferentiated

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9
Q

Bem

A

50 males - 50 females
Rate 200 traits on desirability for men/women
Highest scores in each category became the 20 masculine and 20 feminine traits
Led to Bem’s sex role inventory
1 month later, 28 M and 28 F retested
Test-retest of +0.9

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10
Q

Androgyny evaluation

A

Bem’s research had good reliability (test retest) and therefore could be used to encourage children to be androgynous

The questionnaire may have been answered untruthfully - the data is ordinal and therefore subjective. Furthermore questionnaire may lack cultural and temporal validity as created by USA students in the 70’s on masc. and fem. traits

T.L - Ben said androgyny will lead to greater psychological wellbeing but this idea has been challenged. Adam’s suggested that those who display more masculine traits are better adjusted to western society

Opposed by gender neutrality which suggests there are no masculine and feminine traits invalidating the BSRI

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11
Q

What are the biological approaches to explaining sex and gender?

A

Hormones

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12
Q

What does the biological approach say about sex and gender?

A

They are basically the same thing

Sex is the biological assignment of the individual

Gender is the behavioural differences between males and females based on that biology

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13
Q

How do hormones affect gender?

A

Once a foetus is either male or female, boys will form testes and thereby testosterone but a female won’t. This leads to sex characteristics which leads to gender

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14
Q

What does testosterone do?

A

Higher concentration in males

Causes increased body hair, broader physique and more muscle development

Can cause aggression

Contributes to being biologically male but may also produce gendered behaviour

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15
Q

What does oestrogen do?

A

Higher concentration in women

Regulates the menstrual cycle, causes breast development, wide hips and a high voice

Linked to pre-menstrual syndrome which refers to fluctuation in mood - Some people believe it leads to increased emotion (this is criticised)

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16
Q

What does oxytocin do?

A

Higher concentrations in women

Very high levels are birth to allow bonding - also stimulates lactation

Contributes to the stereotypes that women are more capable of intimacy than men - this is challenged as men and women release equal quantities during sex

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17
Q

Hines

A

Studied female babies from women given male hormones injections during pregnancy to reduce chance of miscarriage

Children found to be more aggressive - likely due to testosterone

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18
Q

Young

A

Changed sexual behaviour of M&F rats by giving them hormones in early development
Female rats tried to mate as male rats would
It was suggested that higher levels of testosterone affected brain development

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19
Q

David Reimer

A

After a botched circumcision, Bruce was left without a penis. —> Became Brenda

Bruce was raised in a stereotypically female way

Hated his life

Was told he was a male and went back to living as one

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20
Q

Biological approach to sex and gender evaluation

A

Van Goozen et al. (1995) found transgender women (male-to-female) who were given oestrogen treatment showed decreases in aggression and visuospatial skills, while transgender men (female-to-male) treated with testosterone showed the opposite effects

Opposed by SLT which directly contradicts the biological approach - children learn by watching and imitating role models. This is better as it explains cultural differences

Some of this theory states that hormones lead to stereotypical behaviours - Feminists say that premenstrual syndrome (a stereotypical female behaviour) is jut a social construct designed to dismiss female emotion

Biologically deterministic / very reductionist - may need to take a more holistic view including culture, biology and psychology

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21
Q

Kinefelters key facts

A

Only affects men
Affects 1-500 to 1-1000
Sufferers are XXY

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22
Q

What are 3 physical characteristics of kinefelters

A

Breasts
Reduced hair development
Underdeveloped genitals

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23
Q

What are 3 psychological characteristics of klinefelters

A

Poor reading
Poor problem solving
Shy

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24
Q

Turners syndrome key facts

A

Only affects women
Affects 1-5000
Suffered are XO (45 chromosomes instead of 46)

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25
Q

What are 3 physical characteristics of Turners syndrome

A

Webbed necks
Sterile
No breasts

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26
Q

What are 3 psychological characteristics of Turners syndrome

A

Higher than average reading ability
Poor maths skills
Difficulty fitting in

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27
Q

Atypical sex chromosomes patterns evaluation

A

Application of understanding and diagnosing The syndromes earlier. Those who were treated from a young age are much better than adult diagnosis (Australia 87 men). Also hormone therapy can be done or sperm / eggs frozen for infertility reasons

Measures the difference between typical and atypical people but there may be no such this as a typical male or female

By comparing people who have these conditions with chromosome-typical individuals it becomes possible to see psychological and behavioural differences between the two groups. It can be inferred that these differences have a biological basis and are a direct result of abnormal chromosomal structure. C.A. Can be confounded by environment as children may treat theses kids differently e.g. kids have physical abnormalities so kids make fun of them hence they are shy

Research into KS and TS lacks population validity, as those who are diagnosed with these syndromes will be those with the severest symptoms and therefore research is based on an unrepresentative sample as it excludes those who have milder symptoms, who are often those with the mosaic form

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28
Q

What are the psychological theories of gender development

A

Kohlbergs - cognitive
Gender schema theory - cognitive
Psychodynamic
SLT

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29
Q

What did Kohlberg argue about gender development

A

It runs parallel to intellectual development. Changes take place gradually through these stages
Took inspiration from Piaget who suggested intellectual development moved in stages

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30
Q

What is the gender identity stage

A

Around 2
They know what gender they are but do not know that’s its permanent

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31
Q

What is the gender stability stage

A

Around 4
They know gender is permanent but may be confused by people who have a characteristic of the opposite gender

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32
Q

What is the gender constancy stage?

A

Around 6
Gender is constant and they will no longer be confused by it

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33
Q

What does kohlberg say kids will do once they reach gender constancy?

A

They will seek out gender appropriate role models to learn more of their behaviour. They will imitate theses role model behaviours and look for those who confirm their views on gender

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34
Q

Slaby and Frey

A

Showed kids split screen images of a M&F doing the same task and measured how long kids spent looking at each one
Young kids spent equal amounts of time looking at each
Older kids spent more time looking at the same gender

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35
Q

Kohlberg’s theory evaluation

A

Using children in research means kids can’t express themselves as they are as young as 2 or 3. Furthermore cannot apply to kids who are transgender / non-binary

Munroe et al provided cross cultural support for this theory - found evidence of kohlbergs stages in other countries e.g. nepal

Criticised for reductionism - Cognitive factors are the only important factor ignoring all biology

McConaghy (1979) conducted interviews with young children and found that if a doll was dressed in transparent clothing so its genitals were visible, 3-5-year-old children still judged its gender by its clothes, supporting Kohlberg’s argument that children in the gender stability stage still rely on external appearances to determine gender

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36
Q

What does gender schema theory argue about gender?

A

Gender development rests with our schema development. As our schemas get more complex, so foes our understanding of gender

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37
Q

What is a schema?

A

A mental representation which contains all of our information on a particular topic

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38
Q

What is a gender schema

A
  • organised group of related concepts/cognitive structures/mental representation
  • about each sex and sex appropriate behaviour
39
Q

How do kohlbergs theory and gender schema theory agree

A

Agrees with gender identity at 2 where they can label themselves as boy or girl

40
Q

How do kohlbergs theory and gender schema theory differ

A

After gender identity gender schema says that they then begin looking form information to confirm their views

(contradicting kohlberg who says this happens after all 3 stages)

41
Q

What does gender schema theory argue about children

A

They are active seekers of info

42
Q

How do gender schemas start off?

A

They are stereotypical but become sophisticated over time

43
Q

What group do children pay attention to (gender schema theory)

A

An in group of kids made up of the same gender

44
Q

At what age will kids pay attention to an out group?

A

At 8

45
Q

Martin and Halverson

A

Kids younger than 6 could remember photos more accurately where gender consistent behaviour was displayed e.g. women cleaning
When the behaviour wasn’t consistent, the gender was later changed in recall

46
Q

Gender schema theory evaluation

A

R.S Martin and Halverson - supports idea of gender schemas but also an in group and out group

Gender schema theory does not fully explain why gender schemas develop in the way that they do, because it focuses too much on cognitive factors and not enough on social factors like parental influence and peer pressure

Opposed by biology - David Reimer shows us biology is important as he was raised as a girl but felt like a boy

Gender schemas lack the same construct validity as general cognitive schemas in that they are internal mental processes that cannot be seen and their development cannot be explained, just described

47
Q

At what point did Freud theorise that gender development took place

A

The phallic stage

48
Q

At what age are kids in the phallic stage

A

3-6

49
Q

What is the main source of anxiety for kids in the phallic stage

A

Castration

50
Q

What is the oedipus complex

A

Boys become incestuous towards mother
They hate father for standing in their way
However father is more powerful
Boy is fearful of being castrated
Boy gives up love for mother

51
Q

What is the electra complex

A

All girls experience penis envy
Girl is in competition with mother for fathers love
Girl blames their mother for lack of penis
Girls believe their mother castrated them
Over time girls accept they don’t have a penis

52
Q

How may a child move through the phallic stage?

A

They must identify with their same sex parent

53
Q

What is identification (Freud)

A

Trying to be associated with the same sex parent by imitating them

54
Q

How does internalisation occur (freud)

A

Once the child identifies with their same sex parent, they will internalise that parent as an example of their gender

55
Q

Psychodynamic theory of gender development evaluation

A

Application - child must have same sex role model which can be taught to parents - children in same sex or single parent homes need help - socially sensitive - Golombok found kids without fathers develop in the same way

Only Little hans R.S so not generalisable

Provides a comprehensive explanation of male gender development but the original theory provides very little insight into females - clear alpha bias

other theories such as the cognitive approaches use the scientific method and are more falsifiable so may be better - Freud’s hypotheses are untestable and therefore the theory lacks scientific credibility

56
Q

How does SLT argue gender development comes about

A

Through reinforcement - either direct of vicarious

57
Q

What is direct reinforcement and punishment

A

Reinforcement - Receiving a pleasant outcome because of your behaviour

Punishment - Receiving an unpleasant consequence because of your own behaviour

58
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement and punishment

A

Reinforcement - Observing a role model receive a pleasant consequence for their behaviour

Punishment - Observing a role model receive an unpleasant consequence for their behaviour

59
Q

What is the way in which children are encouraged to show gender appropriate behaviour called (SLT)

A

Differential reinforcement

60
Q

What are the 2 types of role model

A

Live
Symbolic

61
Q

What is Identification (SLT)

A

How similar you consider yourself to the role model

62
Q

What are the 4 meditational processes

A

Attention
retention
Reproduction
Motivation

63
Q

Smith and Lloyd

Age?

A

4-6 month old babies put in unisex snow suits
Kids give names in line with gender or not
Women were videotaped playing with the babies.
7 toys to choose from
If the baby had a boys name, they were given boys toys (hammer shaped rattle) and visa versa for girls (cuddly doll and reinforced to be passive)

64
Q

SLT evaluation for gender evaluation

A

Nurture so ignores all biology (reductionist) but cannot explain why siblings of the same sex and in the same household can grow up with very different gender identities

Theory lim - Hetherington - found that children show no preference for same sex parents behaviour but instead imitate the behaviour of the parent they spend more time with - may not identify with same sex parent

Opposed by cognitive theories which suggest we actively seek information rather than just passively observe

Sears - found that parents allowed their sons to be more aggressive in their relationships with other children and towards their parents than girls. Parents believed they responded in the same ways but intervened more quickly with girls. Therefore shows how we are socially conditioned

65
Q

What study supports cultural differences in gender roles

A

Mead

66
Q

Mead

A

Arapesh - All raised to be loving and gentle
Mundugumoor - All raised to be war like, arrogant and fierce
Tchambuli - F dominant in the economy, M sentimental and emotional (lots of preening and gossiping)

Emphasises nurture over nature

67
Q

What studies support cultural similarities on gender roles

A

Buss
Munroe and Munroe

68
Q

Buss

A

37 countries where females sought males who could provide wealth and males sought females for beauty

69
Q

Munroe and Munroe

A

Across most cultures, men were bread winners and women were home makers

70
Q

Culture and gender development evaluation

A

Meads conclusions were biased towards western ideals as she had preconceptions about what she would find - Mead had been criticised for observer bias and for making generalisations based on a short period of study. Freeman conducted a follow up study and argued that Mead’s findings were flawed as she had been misled by some of her participants, and her preconceptions her influenced her reading of events.

The issue of imposed etic has been suggested by John Berry. He says that the Western ways of doing research are assumed to be universal and may be largely meaningless when transferred to other cultures. He says they should include on member of the local population in the research team as a way guarding against the possibility

Very deterministic - whatever culture you are brought up in will shape your gender

As soon as children are born, their socialisation into a particular society begins, along with all the gender-role expectations that come with it. It becomes very difficult to determine where nature stops and nurture begins. It is likely that there is a complex and constant interaction between the influences in the development of gender roles.

71
Q

When are children more likely to imitate tv role models

A

When they are the same gender

72
Q

Bussey and Bandura

A

Media says:
Men are ambitious, independent and advice givers
Women are unambitious, dependant and advice seekers

73
Q

Furnham and Farragher

A

Men are more likely to be shown in professional roles
Females are more likely to show domestic roles within family

74
Q

What did McGhee and Freugh suggest

A

Children who are exposed to more popular forms of media are more likely to show gender stereotypical roles

75
Q

Williams

A

Natural study in Canada
Observed the effect of introduction of television into a town (nicknamed Note) and compared this to a town which already had television (access to several channels) and a town which had television but only one channel.
They conducted surveys to gather information about the beliefs and values of the town before
TV was introduced and compared this to after.
She reassessed each town two years after the introduction of TV.
She found that before TV the children in Notel and the one channel only town showed less gender stereotyped beliefs and behaviours. After the introduction of TV gender stereotypes displayed by children increased and matched that of the town which already had TV.

76
Q

Effect of media on gender development evaluation

A

Puts forward SLT as a mechanism which is a well supported and established theory

Could be used to improve the media - e.g. showing women doing non gender traditional roles such as the movie Brave, which challenge traditional notions of masculinity and femininity.

Very deterministic - kids will internalise what they see in the media

R.S. from Williams C.A. - Correlational research - creates an issue when we consider if the media output reflects prevailing social norms about males and females. It may also be the case that media is the cause of such norms by depicting men and women in particular ways.

77
Q

What is an example of atypical gender development

A

Gender dysphoria

78
Q

What is gender dysphoria

A

A mismatch between biological sex and gender

79
Q

What are the biological explanations of gender dysphoria

A

Androgen theory
Brain-sex
Genetics

80
Q

How does androgen theory explain gender dysphoria

A

Exposure to testosterone in womb may affect gender development
Over exposure may make female babies more masculine
Under exposer may make male babies more feminine

81
Q

Hare

A

M-F trans people more likely than non transgender people to have a articular version of an androgen receptor gene. —> Reduced action of testosterone —> More feminised brain

82
Q

How does brain-sex theory explain gender dysphoria

A

It is caused by brain structures that are incompatible with the persons biological sex
Some structures are dimorphic meaning different in each sex

83
Q

Zhou

A

Studied the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis which fully develops at 5 and 40% larger in men.
IN post mortem studies of 6 M-F trans people, BNST was of a similar size to a female brain

84
Q

Krujiver

A

6 M-F trains peple
Measured the number of neurones in a particular brain region. Went to female version

85
Q

How does genetics explain gender dysphoria

A

People may inherit a vulnerability to the disorder

86
Q

Heylens

A

23 MZ twins, 21 DZ twins
One of each pair had GID
39% MZ concordant - 0% DZ

87
Q

Biological explanations for gender dysphoria evaluation

A

Could be seen as mother blaming (mother producing too much hormone) - however these people can be treated via hormone therapy

Not only do twin studies in this area not produce high concordance rates, it is also very difficult to separate the influence of nature versus nurture. Twins may influence each other and the environmental conditions they are exposed to are very similar.
Also GID occurs so rarely that sample sizes in twin studies tend to be extremely small, limiting the extent to which effective generalisations can be made.

Genetics allow for potential screening and therapy - socially sensitive as cures transgenders

Plasticity undermines brain sex (BNST) - Biological explanations are subject to bidirectional ambiguity as it may be that brain changes happen after gender dysphoria is present and could be a result of living as the opposite gender.

88
Q

What are the social explanations of gender dysphoria

A

Cognitive
Psychoanalytical

89
Q

What is the cognitive explanation of gender dysphoria

Who proposed it?

A

Based off of gender schema theory
Dual path way theory

Liben & Bigler

90
Q

What is dual path way theory

A

Path 1 (normal)
Child passes through gender stages and develop schemas
The childs identity and schema match so no dysphoria

Path 2 (personal)
Child passes through gender stages but personal interests dominate their gender identity
Child may show androgen our behaviour and be flexible with gender identity

91
Q

Cognitive explanations of gender dysphoria evaluation

A

Liben and Bigler’s theory is descriptive rather than explanatory. There is very little explanation of why a child may become interested in activities that are not consistent with its sex or how these result in non sex-typed schema. It simply describes the effect of GID rather than explaining its causes.

Opposed by biology

Socially sensitive (kids should only do gender stereotypical things)

Gender schema is well supported so it is reasonable to make inferences on the causes of gender dysphoria

92
Q

How do psychoanalytical theories explain gender dysphoria

A

Gender dysphoria is caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established
During their separation, the child fantasises about a symbolic fusion with mother to reduce anxiety
The child becomes the mother and takes on a female gender identity

93
Q

Stoller

A

In interviews with males with gender dysphoria, they all had overly close relationships with mother

94
Q

Psychoanalytical explanations for gender dysphoria evaluation

A

Alpha bias - provides insight into males but not females

Opposed by biology

Stollers research was highly subjective - unfalsifiable so any number of extraneous variables may have played a role

Zucker - examined 115 boy with gender concerns. Of the boys who were identified with a gender disorder, 64% were also diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder

Psychology (14 decks)

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