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Approaches Flashcards

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1
Q

Who was the father of psychology?

A

Wilhelm Wundt

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2
Q

Why was Wilhelm Wundt the father of psychology?

A

He separated psychology from philosophy and worked in a more structured way
He wrote the first book on psychology

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3
Q

When and where did Wundt open his lab?

A

Germany in 1879
He aimed to examine reaction times and human consciousness

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4
Q

What method did Wundt come up with for studying the human mind?

A

Introspection

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5
Q

How do you do introspection?

A

Participants presented with stimulus

Ask participants to describe their thought process

Results compared

Theories generated

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6
Q

What did introspection form the basis of?

A

The cognitive approach

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7
Q

Introspection evaluation

A

Nisbett and Wilson (1977) claim that we have little knowledge of the causes and processes underlying our behaviour and attitudes. This challenges the value of reflective reports in exploring human behaviour.

Still useful - Hunter used introspection to measure happiness in teens. They had to write down their thoughts and feelings at random points through the day when a beeper went off. Found that teens tend to be happy and are more upbeat when doing a challenging task

It isn’t accurate - It is a form of self report technique and therefore affected by demand characteristics

Uses as scientific method. It uses systematic methods, standardised instructions and controlled stimuli

Too subjective - it focuses on non-observable concepts and Wundts results were not replicated by other researchers. It requires inference so other researchers may infer something else

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8
Q

What do behaviourists believe we are born as?

A

Blank slates (tabula rasa)

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9
Q

Is the behaviourist approach scientific

A

Yes - it is based off of direct observations in a laboratory

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10
Q

How do behaviourists believe we get info of the world?

A

Everything is learnt

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11
Q

What similarities do humans and animals have according to behaviourists?

A

We learn in the same ways

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12
Q

What is conditioning?

A

A term used for learning

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13
Q

What are they 2 types of conditioning?

A

Classical and Operant

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14
Q

What are the stages of pavlov’s classical conditioning

A

Neutral stimulus —> No response
Unconditioned stimulus —> Unconditioned response
Unconditioned stimulus + Neutral stimulus —> Unconditioned response
Conditioned Stimulus —> Conditioned response

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15
Q

What are some features important to classical conditioning?

A

Timing - unconditioned and neutral must be at the same time

Extinction - Learnt behaviour lost if not repeated

Spontaneous recovery - Behaviour can be learnt again if UCS and NS are repaired

Stimulus generalisation - Learnt behaviours can be generalised to other things e.g. rats/rabbits in the little albert study

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16
Q

Who proposed operant conditioning?

A

Skinner

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17
Q

What does operant conditioning refer to?

A

Learning from the consequences of your behaviour

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18
Q

What is positive reinforcement and punishment

A

Reinforcement - Something added that increases behaviour
Punishment - Something added that decreases behaviour

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19
Q

What is negative reinforcement and punishment

A

Reinforcement - Something taken away that increases behaviour
Punishment - Something taken away that decreases behaviour

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20
Q

What are the 2 schedules of reinforcement?

A

Continuous
Intermittent

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21
Q

What’s continuous reinforcement?

A

Behaviour is continuously rewarded every time - behaviour is learnt quickly but won’t last

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22
Q

What is intermittent reinforcement?

A

Behaviour is rewarded occasionally - Longer to learn bust lasts longer

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23
Q

What was the Skinner box?

A

Skinner created a special cage called a ‘Skinner box’ to test operant conditioning in rats (and sometimes pigeons). The rat moves around the cage and when it accidentally presses the lever (or pecks a disc in the case of a pigeon), a food pellet falls into the cage. The hungry rat very quickly learns that it can get food by pressing the lever.

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24
Q

Behaviourist approach evaluation

A

Makes use of an empirical method - rejected introspection and instead focussed on measurable and objective behaviour. This makes research more valid which leads to more funding

Use of animal studies - behaviourists believe animals learn in the same ways as humans - gives researchers more control over demand charactersitics - can be considererd unethical and lack generalisability to humans e.g. skinners rats doesnt tell us mutch about humans

Very deterministic - we have no free will. It ignores biology and is therefore reductionist. Maybe better to use a more holistic approach

Conditioning useful in exmplaining and treating phobias e.g. systematic desensitisation for people with phobias. The patient is conditioned to association their phobia with relaxation instead of fear. C.A. cant explain why people cant always recall traumatic experience

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25
Q

How does SLT propose we learn?

A

Through the observations of others
We observe then imitate

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26
Q

What is vicarious reinforcement?

A

Watching others behaviour be rewarded or punished?

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27
Q

What makes imitation more likely?

A

Observed the consequences of that behaviour
Identify with the role model
Confidence to reproduce the behaviour

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28
Q

What are the 2 types of role models? What do they mean?

A

Symbolic - Someone portrayed in the media
Live - Someone who we have direct contact with

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29
Q

What are the 4 meditational processes

A

Attention - pay attention to actions and consequences
Retention - Observed behaviour stored in LTM
Reproduction - Must be able to reproduce the behaviour
Motivation - The individual must expect to be rewarded

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30
Q

Bandura

A

66 nursery kids
3 conditions
1) Video where adult rewarded for hitting doll
2) Adult punished for hitting doll
3) Nothing happened hitting the doll
1. was most aggressive
2. was least aggressive
When 2. were offered a reward to be aggressive, they quickly were

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31
Q

Bandura evaluation

A

High internal validity - lab study so extraneous variables controlled

Only looked at immediate effects, we don’t know if this would last

Heard in video - that’s the bobo doll for hitting

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32
Q

Siegel and McCormick

A

Young people who hold deviant values and attitudes are more likely to associate with similarly- inclined peers because they are more fun to be with, and thus the reinforcement of ‘deviant’ behaviour is a two-way process and not necessarily the result of SLT itself.

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33
Q

Social learning theory evaluation

Approaches

A

Issue of causality - do people learn behaviour from role models or do they seek out role models who exhibit bhevaiour they already favour? - Siegel and McCormick
If individuals are predisposed to certain behaviours, suggests behaviours arent learned through social interactions but pre existing inlclinations

Cook & Mineka (1990) had monkeys watch a video of another monkey reacting with fear to a snake. When the observer-monkeys had a chance to get food, they would not if it involved approaching a snake or a snake-like object (toy snakes). C.A - may be evolutionary

Research is scientific, being carried out in lab conditions and using one-way mirrors and multiple observers for inter-rater reliability. C.A - brings in cognitions – thought processes, which are unobservable.

Ignores biological factors e.g. the role of testosterone in aggression. The aggressive boys in Banduras study may have had high levels of testosterone explaining their violence

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34
Q

What is the cognitive approach

A

Studying internal processes

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35
Q

How do psychologists study the cognitive approach?

A

Scientifically using controlled experiments

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36
Q

What is an inference and why do cognitive psychologists have to make them?

A

Working out what is happening using available info
Mental processes can’t be directly observed
Therefore inferences made

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37
Q

What do cognitive psychologists do with their inferences?

A

Make models and theories to explain mental processes

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38
Q

What are schemas?

A

Packages of knowledge developed through experience
They help organise info

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39
Q

Why are schemas good and bad

A

Good as they allow us to quickly access large amounts of info and make predictions based off of life experiences

Bad as they can lead to stereotypes and discrimination which has a negative impact on mental health

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40
Q

What are the 2 model types cognitive psychologists use?

A

Theoretical models
Computer models

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41
Q

What is a theoretical model?

A

Used by researchers to explain unobserved processes
They describe how info is processed - often with pictures
E.g. the multi store memory model

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42
Q

What is a computer model?

A

The mind is like a computer
Info is take in via the senses, processed by the brain and then we perform an output

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43
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience?

A

The scientific study of the influence of the brain structures relating to mental processes
Is built on computer models

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44
Q

What are brain scans like fMRI and PET used for (cognitive neuroscience)

A

They allow scientists to observe and describe which areas of the brain are involved in mental processes

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45
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience used for?

A

Treatment of memory issues
Helps people with dyslexia
Lie detection

46
Q

Cognitive approach evaluation

A

Leads to treatments e.g. CBT for depression and police interview techniques

Criticised for machine reductionism - they reduce complex behaviours down to simple mechanical processes

The approach tells us how cognitive processes take place but not why - emotion is also ignored which is a major driving force behind many decisions

Neuroimaging technology e.g. Function Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI), have lent weight to theoretical models by providing empirical confirmation of brain activity for specific cognitive functions under controlled conditions. Some claim that these techniques provide the cognitive approach with a strong scientific grounding, while others insist that neuroimaging evidence is only correlational, and therefore does not constitute true scientific validation of either theories or models

47
Q

What is the biological approach?

A

Combines psychology with biology to provide Physiological explanations for human behaviour

48
Q

What is physiology

A

The study of the human body, its parts and how they function

49
Q

What are 2 key assumptions of the biological approach

A

Everything psychological was first biological
The mind lives in the brain

50
Q

What are 3 structures we look at in the biological approach?

A

Genes
Neurotransmitters
Hormones

51
Q

What are some biological measures the biological approach uses

A

Hr
BP
brain activity

52
Q

What do biological psychologists believe about behaviour? (genetically)

A

Genes influence behaviour such as intelligence and personality in the same way they influence physical things like eye colour

53
Q

How can we investigate the effect of genes?

A

Twin studies
Family studies
Adoption studies
Selective breeding

54
Q

What does monozygotic mean

A

Twins from the same egg - same genes

55
Q

What does dizygotic mean

A

Twins from different eggs - same genetic differences as with normal siblings

56
Q

How do twin studies help us know if genetics are important?

A

Comparing concordance rates

57
Q

What is a concordance rate? What does it mean in twin studies?

A

The rate of agreement between 2 things
The extent to which twins share similar traits / characteristics

58
Q

What would a 100% concordance rate between mz twins mean?

A

100% genetic basis due to same genetic make up

59
Q

Why do DZ twins have lower concordance rates?

A

They only share 50% of genes so different characteristics

60
Q

What is the difference between genotype and phenotype?

A

Genotype - a persons genetic make up. The genetic code written in DNA
Phenotype - A persons physical characteristics - the way the genes are expressed (genotype + environment)

61
Q

What is neurochemistry?

A

The study of chemical and neural processes associated with the nervous system

62
Q

What is the difference between neurotransmitters and hormones?

A

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that carry signals between neuron’s. They affect how we feel
Hormones are chemicals that are produced by endocrine glands that alter cell activity

63
Q

What is evolution

A

Successful traits that are passed from 1 generation to the next

64
Q

What is natural selection?

A

Traits which are adaptive to an environment will be passed down

65
Q

Why do biological scientists believe humans have certain behaviours?

A

They are adaptive (aid survival)

66
Q

What is sexual selection

A

The traits which are more desirable to the opposite gender will be passed down

67
Q

Biological approach evaluation

A

Scientific credibility - very objective measures in lab conditions so cause and effect is measured C.A. - causation is often implied in brain structures. e.g. schizophrenia suggests that a lack of activity in the ventral striatum is linked to the development of negative symptoms such as avolition. This is a problem for biological explanations because: research tells us only that there is an association between brain structures and behaviour; it cannot tell us that the reduced activity in that area of the brain causes the behaviour, or that the behaviour causes lower activity in that part of the brain. often based on correlational results

Very reductionist - behaviours are reduced to very small components e.g. hormones. Take interactionist approach

Real world treatments e.g. for neurochemical imbalances such as in depression, SSRI’S can help change this.

Entirely nature in the nature nurture debate but doesn’t take into account that twins are often raised in the same environment and so findings could be all nurture

68
Q

Who proposed the psychodynamic approach

A

Freud

69
Q

What is a key assumption of the psychodynamic approach

Origin of mental conditions

A

Mental illness is of psychological origin

70
Q

What part of the mind is important in psychodynamic theory

A

The unconscious

71
Q

What part of life affects mental illness (psychodynamic theory)

A

Childhood

72
Q

Structure of personality (psychodynamic)

How they work in conjunction together

A

Id
Ego
Super ego

These are all in conflict with each other

This caused anxiety so we use defence mechanisms to avoid this anxiety

This leads to mental illness

73
Q

What are the defence mechanisms

A

Denial
Displacement
Repression

74
Q

What is the Id

A

Present at birth
Pleasure orientated
Immediate gratification
Selfish
Unconscious

75
Q

What is the ego

A

Present by 1
Reality
Sorts the demands of the ID and Super ego
Conscious

76
Q

What is the super ego

A

By 5
Moral
Concerned with right and wrong
Develops once you learn moral standards
Conscious

77
Q

In a healthy person, what does the psychodynamic approach say is in control

A

The ego

78
Q

What happens if the Id or Super ego is in control

A

Id - psychotic - mentally unstable
Super ego - Neurotic - anxious / fearful

79
Q

How does the ego protect itself

A

Defence mechanisms

80
Q

What is repression?

A

Unconsciously blocking unacceptable thoughts. Even if your not aware, it can still influence behaviour

81
Q

What is denial?

A

Refusing to accept reality in order to resist painful feelings

82
Q

What is Displacement?

A

Diverting emotions onto someone else as they can’t direct them onto the person who deserved them

83
Q

What causes mental illness according to Freud

A

Being stuck on a psychosexual stage- conflicts or anxieties from childhood cause future problems

84
Q

What are Freuds psychosexual stages

A

Oral (0-2) - mouth
Anal (2-3) - Anus
Phallic (3-6) - Genitals
Latent (6-12 - Sexual urges channelled into sports/hobbies
Genital (12+) - Sexual feelings

85
Q

What is the oral stage

A

0-2

Pleasure: Mouth, sucking, biting swallowing

Conflict: weaning away from mothers breast

86
Q

What is the anal stage

A

2-3

Pleasure: Anus

Conflict: potty training

87
Q

What is the phallic stage

A

3-6

Pleasure: Genitals

Conflict: oedipus / electra conflict

88
Q

What is the latent stage

A

6-12

Pleasure: Sexual urges channeled into sports / hobbies

Conflict: A period of calm

89
Q

What is the genital stage

A

12+

Pleasure / conflict: Sexual changes reawaken repressed needs. Sexual feelings towards others leads to sexual gratification

90
Q

What was the case of little Hans

A

Little Hans (5) had a fear of horses after witnessing one collapse

Freud believed that this fear was a result of castration anxiety and that the horse represented his father

Freud believed Hans transferred his unconscious desires onto the horse, fearing punishment (castration) from his father for his desires towards his mother

91
Q

Psychodynamic approach evaluation

A

Freud offers therapy of psychoanalysis where unconscious thoughts are identified and helped (Maat meta-analysis found that psychoanalysis significantly improved symptoms and the effects lasted years)

Unfalsifiable as the unconscious mind can never be accessed and therefore tested

Case studies (Little Hans) so can’t be generalised. Studies are also subjective so other researchers may have drawn different conclusions - also ethnocentric as all of fruds patients were Viennese and middle class

Fisher’s meta-analysis of 2500 studies found evidence supporting unconscious motivation and the 3 defense mechanisms

92
Q

Who developed the humanistic approach?

A

Maslow and Rogers

93
Q

What does the humanistic approach focus on

A

Free will

94
Q

What is the humanistic approach based on

A

A person-centred approach (conscious human experience)

95
Q

What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

A

Self actualisation
Esteem
Love
Safety
Physiological

96
Q

What did Rogers claim we need to self actualise

A

Positive regard from other people

Feelings of self worth

97
Q

How do feelings of self worth develop

A

It develops in childhood as a result of interactions with family and friends

98
Q

What is our ideal self

A

How we want to be
An idealised image we develop over time based on what we have learned over time

99
Q

What is out actual self?

A

Who we actually are

100
Q

What is congruence?

A

The similarity between actual and ideal image
The more similar - the higher our self worth is

101
Q

What does Rogers say about incongruence with regards to self actualisation?

A

If you are incongruent, you cannot achieve self actualisation - we experience negative feelings

102
Q

What is counselling psychology?

A

Also known as person-centred therapy

People can only achieve their potential for growth if they have positive self-regard

For this to happen, they need unconditional positive regard from others

103
Q

What did Rogers believe that adult issues are caused by

A

Feelings of worthlessness that originated in childhood from conditional positive regard

e.g. If a parent says I will only love you if …

104
Q

What does a therapist need to be according to Rogers

A

Genuine, Empathetic and provide unconditional feelings of self-worth

105
Q

Humanistic approach evaluation

A

Suggests that all problems are a result of not achieving self actualisation however this is unrealistic as very few people achieve self actualisation.
Furethemore needs are dynamic and continuously influenced by the interplay between our inner drives and the external world Freund
Maslow’s early work suggested that one must fulfill lower levels in order to reach ultimate self-actualization, we now know human needs are not always clearly linear nor hierarchical.
People might experience and pursue multiple needs simultaneously or in a different order than the hierarchy suggests

Real-world application - client-centred therapy has helped many people overcome their incongruence

Maslow’s hierarchy is culturally biased - collectivist cultures such as Japan strive towards group goals so don’t focus on individual development - only applicable to individualist cultures

Harter - found that teens who felt they had to meet certain conditions to gain parental approval frequently ended up not liking themselves (supports rogers incongruence)

106
Q

What is the unconscious for

A
  • the unconscious protects the conscious self from anxiety/fear/trauma/conflict.
  • defence mechanisms, eg repression, denial, displacement, are used unconsciously to reduce anxiety * the underlying unconscious drive is sexual
107
Q

What do defence mechanisms do

A
  • Provide compromise solutions (usually unconscious) to deal with unresolvable conflict
  • Provide a strategy to reduce anxiety (which weakens the ego’s influence)
108
Q

When discussing genotype vs phenotype of identical twins, how can differences be explained?

A

Same genotype
Different phenotype
They behave differently (environmental factors)

109
Q

How can an animals behaviour be changed by reinforcement

A

P.R: feed it when it does a good thing
N.R: spray with water/play sound until it does good thing
Schedule of reinforcement: continuous and intermittent

110
Q

Features of slt

A

Meditational processes
Observational learning
Vicarious reinforcement
Role models
Imitation

Psychology (14 decks)

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