GABAergic and Glutamatergic Neurotransmission, GABAergic and Glutamatergic Drugs Flashcards
Distribution of GABA throughout the brain
Widely and uniformly distributed throughout the brain
in contrast to most other neurotransmitters which have a localised, discrete distribution (e.g. ACh, NA, dopamine and serotonin)
Synthesis, storage, release, termination and metabolism of GABA
- Glutamate is taken into neuron via carrier mediated transport
- Glutamate is decarboxylated to GABA by glutamic acid decarboxylase
- GABA is actively packaged into vesicles by a specific transporter
- Release is via classical Ca2+ mediated exocytosis
- Termination is via uptake by a GABA transporter
- Degradation is via GABA transaminase

2 types of GABA receptors
GABAA
GABAB
GABAA
- MOA
- Subunit composition
- Ligand gated ion channel
- Pentamer - α, β, γ subunits (3-6 of each subunit)
GABAB
- MOA
- Subunit composition
- Gi protein via AC and decreased cAMP
- Dimer
what is the GABAA receptor permeable to
permeable to Cl-
what are the receptor targets of GABAA receptor
GABA site - agonists and antagonists
benzodiazepine site - enhance actions of GABA
barbiturate site - enhance actions of GABA
neurosteroid site - enhance actions of GABA
picrotoxin site - blocks Cl- channel (hyperpolarisation so more difficult for cell to be activated)

drugs that enhance actions of GABA
benzodiazepines
barbiturates
neurosteroids
what drug blocks Cl- channel on GABAA receptor
picrotoxin
what sort of transmitter is GABA
INHIBITORY
GABAA
- cellular location
- response
- MOA
- postsynaptic
- fast postsynaptic inhibition
- channel is selectively permeable to Cl- - increasing Cl- permeability hyperpolarises cell, thereby reducing its excitability
GABAB
- cellular location
- response
- MOA
- pre and post synaptic
- pre and post synaptic inhibition
- inhibits VG Ca2+ channels (inhibits transmitter release) - opens K+ channels (reduces postsynaptic excitability)
general functions of GABA
general CNS depression/inhibition
regulates/modulates the activity of other NT systems
where is glutamate found in the brain
widely and uniformly distributed - in contrast to most other NTs
(opposite of GABA)
Synthesis, storage, release, termination, metabolism of glutamate
- glutamine is taken into neuron via carrier mediated transport
- glutamine is converted to glutamate by glutaminase
- glutamate is actively packaged into vesicles by a specific transporter
- release is via classical Ca2+ mediated exocytosis
- termination is via uptake by a glutamate transporter
- degradation is via glutamine synthase

what are the main glutamate receptor subtypes
NMDA
AMPA
Kainate
Metabotropic
NMDA
- MOA
- subunit composition
- ligand gated ion channel
- pentamer - NR1 and NR2 subunits
AMPA
- MOA
- subunit composition
- ligand gated ion channel
- pentamer - GluR1-4 subunits
Kainate
- MOA
- subunit composition
- ligand gated ion channel
- pentamer - GluR5-7 and KA1-2 subunits
metabotropic
- MOA
- subunit composition
- Gq protein coupled
- PLC and increased IP3/DAG/Ca2+
NMDA
N-methyl D-aspartate
what is the NMDA receptor permeable to
Na+
Ca2+
K+

what are the facilitatory sites on the NMDA receptor
glutamate - agonists/antagonists
glycine - required for channel opening
polyamine side - polyamines facilitate channel opening

site on NMDA receptor required for channel opening
glycine
site on NMDA receptor that facilitates channel opening
polyamine side
what are the inhibitory sites on the NMDA receptor
Mg2+ - channel is normally blocked by Mg2+ when the cell is normally polarised but is overcome when the cell is depolarised
Zn2+ - binding of Zn2+ inhibits receptor opening
channel blocking drug site - certain drugs, e.g. PCP, selectively block the channel

glutamate = main ________ NT in the brain
excitatory
NMDA
- cellular location
- response
- postsynaptic
- slow EPSP
NB - synaptic plasticity and excitotoxicity
AMPA
- cellular location
- response
- postsynaptic
- fast EPSP
Kainate
- cellular location
- response
- pre and postsynaptic
- fast EPSP
metabotropic
- cellular location
- response
- pre and post synaptic
- synaptic modulation
what are glutamatergic antagonists used to treat
Head injury and stroke
reduce excitotoxic brain damage following head injury and stroke
Epilepsy
some anti-epileptic drugs work by antagonising glutamate receptors, specifically AMPA subtype (e.g. perampanel)
perampanel
anti-epileptic drug
antagonises glutamate receptors, specifically AMPA
epilepsy
prevalence
what are possible causes
neurological disorder characterised by seizures
seizures are caused by high freq discharge of a group of neurons in the brain
usually start locally but can spread to other areas of the brain
symptoms depend on region of brain affected
affects 0.5-1% of the population
usually no recognisable cause but MAY occur after brain damage (trauma, infection, tumour) or in certain inherited neurological disorders
how is epilepsy characterised
Partial seizures: simple (if patient remains conscious) OR complex (if patient loses consciousness)
generalised seizures: tonic-clonic (grand mal) OR absence (petit mal)

tonic phase of tonic-clonic seizures (grand mal)
an initial strong contraction of the whole musculature
rigid extensor spasm
respiration may stop
defecation, micturition and salivation may occur

clonic phase of tonic-clonic seizures
series of violent synchronous jerks
lasts 2-4 mins
patient recovers consciousness feeling ill and confused

epileptic absence seizures
brain regions involved
frequently seen in what demographic
patient abruptly stops whatever he/she is doing and stares vacantly for a few seconds
patient is unaware of his/her surroundings and recovers abruptly with little after effects
absence seizures frequently occur in children
EEG pattern reflects neural oscillations between thalamus and cortex - due to T type Ca2+ channels

what happens if there is a seizure in the reticular formation
lose consciousness
what MAY cause epileptic seizures
enhanced excitatory AA (glutamate) transmission
reduced inhibitory AA (GABA) transmission
abnormal electrical properties of the affected cells
what can repeated epileptic discharge cause
neuronal death through excitotoxic mechanisms
Lennox-Gastaut syndrome
severe form of epilepsy
affects children
associated with progressive mental retardation (probably occurs as a result of neurodegeneration)
Glutamate acting on NMDA receptor - Ca2+ in - NMDA receptor keeps letting it in - damage lipids etc - progressive mental dysfunctionality
synonym for anti-epileptic drugs
how effective are they
fully effective in treating seizures in 50-80% of patients
anti-convulsant drugs
4 most important anti-epileptic drugs in use
phenytoin
carbamazepine
valproate
ethosuximide
other long established anti-epileptic drugs
barbituates e.g. phenoarbital although it is an anaesthetic so only for extreme epileptic states
benzodiazepines e.g. diazepam, clonazepam, lorazepam
danger associated with sodium valproate
causes foetal abnormalities in pregnant women
newer anti-epileptic drugs
vigabatrin
gabapentin
lamotrigine
felbamate
tiagabine
topiramate
levetiracetam
zonisamide
pregabalin
retigabine
perampanel
lacosamide
stiripentol
4 distinct mechanisms of anti-epileptic drugs
- enhancement of GABA action
- inhibition of VG Na+ channel function
- inhibition of VG Ca2+ channel function (responsible for releasing NTs)
- antagonism of glutamate receptors
aim = to prevent ABNORMAL discharge while leaving NORMAL discharge intact
how do anti-epileptic drugs enhance GABAergic transmission
+ve allosteric modulation of GABAA receptor e.g. barbituates and benzodiazepines
inhibition of GABA transaminase e.g. vigabatrin
inhibition of GABA uptake e.g. tiagabine

metabolism of GABA

MOA of barbituates and benzodiazepines
+ve allosteric modulation of GABAA receptor
MOA of vigabatrin
inhibition of GABA transaminase
MOA of tiagabine
inhibition of GABA uptake
explain MOA of benzodiazepines
enhance GABAergic transmission at GABAA receptor (a ligand gated ion channel receptor, permeable to Cl- and thus opening the channel hyperpolarises neuron and reduces its excitability)
benzodiazepines bind to GABAA receptor at a different site to GABA and increase the affinity of GABA for the receptor
MOA of phenytoin, carbamazepine, valproate, lamotrigine
inhibit VD Na+ channel function thereby reducing neuronal membrane excitability
prevents propagation of APs
their blocking action shows the phenomenon of use dependence - they preferentially block the excitation of neurons that are firing repetitively
use dependence occurs because these anti-epileptic drugs preferentially bind to inactivated state of Na+ channel
use dependence
preferentially block the excitation of neurons that are firing repetitively

MOA of ethosuximide and valproate
inhibit T type VG Ca2+ channel function that underpins absence seizures
MOA of gabapentin and pregabalin
bind to a subunit of P/Q-type VG Ca2+ channels thereby preventing it from trafficking to the membrane
reduces Ca2+ dependent exocytosis of synaptic vesicles
MOA of perampanel
antagonises glutamate receptors, specifically the AMPA subtype
normal fear response to threatening stimuli
defensive behaviour
autonomic reflexes
arousal and alertness
corticosteroid secretion
negative emotions
in anxiety states, these reactions occur in an anticipatory manner independent of external events
anxiety becomes pathological when these symptoms interfere with normal function
generalised anxiety disorder
ongoing state of anxiety with no clear reason
social anxiety disorder
fear of being/interacting with other people
panic disorder
attacks of overwhelming fear in association with marked somatic symptoms - sweating, tachycardia, chest pains, trembling, choking
OCD
compulsive ritualistic behaviour driven by irrational anxiety
PTSD
anxiety triggered by insistent recall of past stressful experiences
types of anxiolytic drugs
benzodiazepines
drugs used for depression
5-HT1A receptor agonists
β-adrenoceptor antagonists
drugs used for epilepsy
drugs used for schizophrenia
anxiolytic drugs - benzodiazepines
diazepam - Valium
alprazolam - Xanax
anxiolytic drugs - drugs used for depression
SSRIs e.g. fluoxetine (Prozac)
anxiolytic drugs - 5-HT1A receptor agonists
busiprone
anxiolytic drugs - β-adrenoceptor antagonists
β blockers e.g. propranolol
especially for panic disorder to stop triggering the sympathetic drive
anxiolytic drugs - used for epilepsy
gabapentin
pregabalin
anxiolytic drugs - used for schizophrenia
olanzapine
risperidone
categories of benzodiazepines
ultrashort duration
short duration
medium duration
long duration
ultrashort duration benzodiazepines
midazolam
zolpidem (Ambien) - not strictly a benzodiazepine but similar MOA
short duration benzodiazepines
lorazepam
temazepam
medium duration benzodiazepines
alprazolam
nitrazepam
long duration benzodiazepines
diazepam (Valium)
chlordiazepoxide
drugs mainly used as hypnotics/sleeping pills
midazolam
zolpidem (Ambien)
pharmacological effects of benzodiazepines
reduction of anxiety and aggression
sedation and induction of sleep
short durations - dependence can occur + rebound insomnia
reduction of muscle tone and co-ordination
relax muscle spasm e.g. slipped disc, headache as a result of increased muscle tone with anxiety
anticonvulsant effects
useful for life threatening status epilepticus (unbroken series of seizures)
anterograde amnesia
prevent formation of memories while on drug - flunitrazepam (Rohypnol = “date rape” drug)