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Head, Neck And Neuro > Functional Anatomy Of The Brain + Cranial nerves > Flashcards

Functional Anatomy Of The Brain + Cranial nerves Flashcards

1
Q

What does the frontal lobe do?

A

Reasoning
Behaviour
Mood
Movement

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2
Q

What is the function of the temporal lobe?

A

Hearing
Memory (hippocampus)
Semantics

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3
Q

What is the function of the parietal lobe?

A

Sensory - pain, pressure, temperature

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4
Q

What is the function of the occipital lobe?

A

Sight

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5
Q

What is the corpus callosum.

A

Connects the cerebral hemispheres and allows communication between them

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6
Q

What is the amygdala and what does it do?

A

It is a group of neurons located deep to the medial temporal lobes
Have a primary role in processing and memory of emotional reactions

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7
Q

What is the general role of the limbic system?

A

Supports a variety of functions including emotion, behaviour and long-term memory

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8
Q

What is the function of the basal ganglia?

A

Co-ordinates gross, automatic muscle movements and regulates muscle tone

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9
Q

Which brain regions make up the diencephalon?

A

Epithalamus
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Subthalamus

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10
Q

What is the function of the epithalamus?

A

Consists of the

  • pineal gland (melatonin secretion - biological clock and sleepiness)
  • habenular nuclei (emotional response to olfaction)
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11
Q

What is the function of the thalamus?

A

Relays sensory information to the cerebral cortex
Includes nuclei involved in voluntary, motor and arousal actions
Anterior nucleus functions in emotions, memory, cognition and awareness

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12
Q

Describe the function of the subthalamus

A 
Contains
- subthalamic nuclei 
- portions of basal substantia nigra 
- portions of red nucleus 
Helps control body movements
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13
Q

Describe the function of the hypothalamus

A

Controls and integrates ANS and pituitary gland activities
Regulates emotional and behavioural patterns
Controls body temperature
Regulates eating and drinking behaviour

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14
Q

What structures make up the midbrain?

A

Midbrain
Superior colliculus
Inferior colliculus

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15
Q

What is the function of the midbrain?

A

Relays motor impulses from cerebral cortex to the pons

Relays sensory impulses from the spinal cord to thalamus

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16
Q

What is the function of the superior colliculus?

A

Co-ordinates movement of the eyeballs in response to visual and other stimuli

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17
Q

What is the function of the inferior colliculus?

A

Co-ordinates movement of the head and trunk in response to auditory stimuli

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18
Q

What brain parts make up the hindbrain?

A

Cerebellum
Pons
Medulla oblongata

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19
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum?

A

Compares intended movements to what is actually happening
- co-ordinates smooth and complex movements
Regulates posture and balance

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20
Q

What is the function of the pons?

A

Relays impulses from one side of cerebellum to the other, and from medulla to midbrain
Contains nuclei of origin for CNV, VI, VII, and VIII

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21
Q

What is the function of the medulla oblongata?

A

Relay between brain and spinal cord
Reticula formation functions in consciousness and arousal
Vital centres regulate heart beat, breathing and blood vessel diameter
Other centres co-ordinate vomiting, swallowing, coughing, sneezing and hiccuping
Contains nuclei of origin for CNIX, X, XI and XII

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22
Q

What does the olfactory nerve do?

A

Sensory - sense of smell

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23
Q

What does the optic nerve do?

A

Sensory - sight

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24
Q

What does the oculomotor nerve do?

A

Motor

  • eyelid movement
  • eyeball movement (medial, superior and interior rectus and inferior oblique)
  • pupillary constriction
  • accommodation of lens for near vision
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25
Q

What does the trochlear nerve do?

A

Motor

- eyeball movement (superior oblique)

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26
Q

What does the trigeminal nerve do?

A

Both sensory and motor

  • sensory to the face (opthalamic, maxillary and mandibular)
  • motor to the muscles of mastication (masseter, temporal is, pterygoid)
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27
Q

What does the abducens nerve do?

A

Motor

- movement of eyeball (lateral rectus)

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28
Q

What does the facial nerve do?

A

Both

  • sensory to skin of external ear and anterior tongue
  • motor to muscles of facial expression and helps secrete saliva and tears
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29
Q

What does the vestibulocochlear nerve do?

A

Sensory

- hearing and equilibrium

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30
Q

What does the glossopharyngeal nerve do?

A

Both sensory and motor

  • motor is for swallowing and speech and secretion of saliva
  • sensory is to carotid body and sinus and taste for posterior tongue
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31
Q

What does the vagus nerve do?

A

Both sensory and motor innervation

  • swallowing and speech
  • parasympathetic innervation
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32
Q

What does the accessory nerve do?

A

Motor

- movement of head and shoulders (sternocleidomastoid and trapezius)

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33
Q

What does the hypoglossal nerve do?

A

Motor

- movements of the tongue

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34
Q

What is the function of the primary motor cortex?

A

Generates nerve impulses that control the execution of movement

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35
Q

What is the function of the posterior parietal cortex?

A

Transforms visual information into motor commands

Sends this information to premotor and supplementary motor cortex areas

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36
Q

What is the function of the premotor cortex?

A

Sensory guide of movement

Controls more proximal and trunk muscles

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37
Q

Describe the function of the supplementary motor cortex.

A

Planning and co-ordination of complex movements

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38
Q

What is the input and output for the striatum of the basal ganglia?

A

Input - brain regions - motor cortex, premotor cortex

Output - globus palidus internal (inhibitory neurons)

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39
Q

What are the components of the basal ganglia?

A 
Dorsal striatum - caudate nucleus and Putamen
Substantia nigra
Globus palidus - internal and external 
Subthalamic nuclei 
Thalamus
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40
Q

What is the input and output for the globus palidus internal of the basal ganglia?

A

Input - inhibitory neurons of the striatum

Output - stops inhibiting the thalamus

41
Q

What is the input and output for the substantia nigra of the basal ganglia?

A

Input - excitatory neurons of the subthalamic nucleus

Output - dopaminergic neurons that excite the inhibitory messages the striatum is sending to the globus palidus internal

42
Q

What is the input and output for the subthalamic nucleus of the basal ganglia?

A

Input - excitatory neurons from the motor cortex and inhibitory neurons from the substantia nigra
Output - excitatory neurons to the substantia nigra

43
Q

What is the substrate for dopamine synthesis?

A

Tyrosine

44
Q

In the cytoplasm a of the dopaminergic neuron, what is tyrosine converted to?

A

DOPA via the action of tyrosine hydroxylase

45
Q

How is DOPA converted to dopamine?

A

DOPA-decarboxylase

46
Q

How is dopamine transported into storage vesicles?

A

Active transport carried out by the vesicular transporter mechanism

47
Q

What is dopamine re-uptake 1?

A

When dopamine is released into the synaptic cleft and is then actively transported back into the neuronal terminal (this happens to 50% of dopamine in cleft)

48
Q

What happens to the dopamine in the neuronal terminal that isn’t transporterd into vesicles for storage and release?

A

It’s broken down by the mitochondrial enzyme monoamine oxidase

49
Q

What is re-uptake 2?

A

When some of the dopamine (10%) in the synaptic cleft is actively transported into the effector cell

50
Q

How is dopamine inactivated in the effector cell?

A

Inactivated by the enzyme catchol-o-methytransferase (COMT)

51
Q

What happens the the 40% of dopamine still left in the synaptic cleft?

A

Diffuses into the circulation and is broken down by monoamine oxidase and COMT in the liver

52
Q

What are the end products of dopamine metabolism?

A

Organic acids and alcohol

- excreted in the urine

53
Q

What is the precursor molecule for tyrosine, and what enzyme catalyses the reaction?

A

L-Phenylalanine

- phenylalanine hydroxylase

54
Q

What are the four main dopaminergic pathways in the brain?

A

Nigrostriatal pathway
Mesolimbic pathway
Mesocortical pathway
Tuberhypophyseal system

55
Q

What is the name of the bundle of monoamine containing fibres that the nigrostriatal, mesolimbic and mesocortical system travel in?

A

Medial forebrain bundle

56
Q

Where are the cell bodies found in the nigrostriatal pathway?

A

In the substantia nigra

57
Q

Where are the cell bodies for the dopaminergic neurons in the mesolimbic pathway?

A

In the midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA) adjacent to the substantia nigra

58
Q

Where do the neurons in the mesolimbic pathway project to?

A

Parts of the limbic system

- especially the nucleus accumbens and amygdaloid nucleus

59
Q

Where are the cell bodies of the neurons in the mesocortical pathway found?

A

In the midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA)

60
Q

Where do the neurons of the mesocortical pathway project to?

A

Frontal cortex

61
Q

Where do the neurons of the tuberohypopyseal system start and terminate?

A

Run from the ventral hypothalamus to the median eminence and pituitary glands

62
Q

What is the function of the tuberohypopyseal system of dopamine action?

A

Controls secretions of the pituitary gland

63
Q

Which dopamine receptors are in the D1 receptor family?

A

D1 and D5

64
Q

Which dopamine receptors are in the D2 receptor family?

A

D2, 3 and 4

65
Q

Which areas are D1 receptors found in?

A

Striatum
Limbic system
Thalamus
Hypothalamus

66
Q

Which areas of the brain are D2 receptors found in?

A 
Striatum
Limbic system
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
67
Q

What are the function of D2 receptors?

A

Inhibitory autoreceptors

68
Q

What are the effects in the periphery that dopamine receptors (D1) exert?

A

Renal vasodilation

Increased myocardial contractility

69
Q

What is the function of dopamine in the nigrostriatal system?

A

Excites the inhibitory messages being sent to the globus palidus.
Fine tunes motor movements

70
Q

What is the function of dopamine in the mesolimbic and mesocortical systems?

A

Mediates the pleasure system in the brain (reward pathway)

Allows motivational and emotional responses

71
Q

What is the function of dopamine in the tuberohypopyseal system?

A

Acts on lactotrophs in the pituitary gland to inhibit release of prolactin.

72
Q

Where do neurons of the noradrenergic system arise from?

A

Neurons of the locus coeruleus

- on one each side of the pons

73
Q

List the places in the brain that the neurons from the locus coeruleus (noradrenergic neurons) innervates?

A 
All the cerebral cortex
Thalamus
Hypothalamus 
Olfactory bulb
Cerebellum
Midbrain
Spinal cord
74
Q

What is the function of the noradrenergic system?

A

Regulates attention, arousal, sleep-wake cycles, leaning, memory, anxiety, pain, mood and brain metabolism

75
Q

Where do the serotonin-containing neurons originate?

A

The nine-rap he nuclei

76
Q

Where do the more caudal (medulla) of the nine raphe nuclei project?

A

The spinal cord

- modulate pain-related sensory signals

77
Q

Where do the more rostal (those in the pons and midbrain) of the nine raphe nuclei innervate?

A

Most of the brain, in the same diffuse way as the locus coeruleus neurons

78
Q

When do serotonin neurons fire the most rapidly?

A

Fires the most during wakefulness (when aroused and active)

  • most quiet during sleep
  • so involved in the sleep-wake cycles
79
Q

Describe the reticular activating system.

A

Includes the raphe nuclei and the locus coeruleus

Included the reticular core of the brainstem in the processes that arouse and awaken the forebrain

80
Q

Define Parkinson’s disease.

A

Progressive degenerative disorder of the basal ganglia that results in variable combinations of tremor, rigidity and bradykinesia

81
Q

What is the pathology that causes Parkinson’s?

A

Dopamine depletion resulting from a degeneration of the dopamine nigrostriatal system

82
Q

What are some other reasons (apart from dopamine depletion) that can causes Parkinsonism.

A

Postencephalitic syndrome
Side effects of anti-psychotic drugs (block dopamine receptors)
Toxic reaction to a chemical agent
Outcome of severe CO poisoning

83
Q

What are the pathological processes that destroy the nigrostriatal system.

A

Oxidative stress
Apoptosis
Mitochondrial disorders
Auto-oxidation of dopamine may injure the neurons

84
Q

Describe what happens in alpha-synuclein mutations to cause Parkinson’s.

A

Alpha-synucleins are a member of a family of proteins found mostly in the substatia nigra
Mutations cause an autosomal dominant form of the disease
- mutation can cause this protein to form Lewy bodies (eosinophilic cytoplasm inclusions found in surviving neurons)

85
Q

Name the two mutations associated with Parkinson’s disease.

A

Alpha-synuclein mutations

Parkin mutations - autosomal recessive early onset form of Parkinson’s

86
Q

What are the main symptoms of Parkinson’s disease.

A 
Tremor 
Rigidity 
Bradykinesia 
Falls 
Fluctuations in motor function
Neuropsychologist disorders
Sleep disorders
87
Q

Describe the tremors associated with Parkinson’s disease.

A 
Affects distal segments of limbs - hands, feet, head, neck, face, lips and tongue 
Rhythmic flexion and contraction 
Usually unilateral 
Occurs when limb is supported/at rest
Disappears in movement or when sleeping
88
Q

Describe the rigidity associated with Parkinson’s disease.

A

Resistance to movement of flexors and extensors
Most evident during passive joint movements
- cogwheel rigidity
- requires lots of energy to perform
Flexion contraction occur due to rigidity
Starts unilateral - becomes bilateral

89
Q

What is bradykinesia?

A

Slowness in initiating and performing movements
Difficulty with sudden, unexpected stopping of voluntary movements
Unconscious movements occur in a series of disconnected steps - not in a smooth manner

90
Q

Describe problems bradykinesia causes.

A

Difficulty initiating walking and turning
Feet may freeze in place while walking
Lean forward when walking to maintain centre of gravity
Small, shuffling steps without swinging arms

91
Q

Describe some of the later stage Parkinson symptoms.

A

Loss of postural reflexes
Voluntary/emotional face movements become limited - mask like face
Loss of blinking reflex
Tongue, palate and throat muscles become rigid = drooling
Speech becomes slow and monotonous - no modulation and poorly articulated
Excessive sweating, sebaceous gland secretion and salivation - due to basil ganglia involvement with ANS
- also causes lacrimation, dysphagia , orthostatic hypertension, thermal regulation, constipation, impotence and urinary incontinence

92
Q

What are the later stage cognitive problems of Parkinson’s?

A

Cognitive dysfunction occurs in 20-30% of people
Deficits in executive function disappear first
- difficulty planning, starting and carrying out tasks
Dementia
Slower rate of decline than in Alzheimer’s

93
Q

How does L-DOPA medication help people with Parkinson’s?

A

L-DOPA is a precursor to dopamine
Administering more substrate will increase the amount of dopamine being synthesised in the remaining 20% of healthy dopaminergic neurons

94
Q

What is the disadvantage of L-DOPA?

A

It only manages symptoms - doesn’t fix the destroyed nigrostriatal pathway
Only works while it is present in the body
Only works if there are enough healthy neurons left to convert it into dopamine
- doesn’t work in late stage Parksinon’s because the degeneration has progressed too far

95
Q

Which drugs is often co-administered with Levodopa, and why.

A

Carbidopa - a DOPA decarboxylase inhibitor

  • can’t cross the blood brain barrier
  • reduces nausea and vomiting often found with L-DOPA administration
96
Q

Why is levodopa given to patients rather than dopamine?

A

Dopamine can’t cross the blood brain barrier, so would remain in the periphery

97
Q

Why are such large amount of levodopa given to patients?

A

Because a lot is converted to dopamine in the periphery before it can enter the brain

98
Q

Describe the mechanism of action of cabidopa.

A

Inhibits dopa decarboxylase, so prevents peripheral conversion of levodopa to dopamine
Lowers levodopa dose needed by 5-fold
Decreases severity of side effects - vomiting and nausea

Head, Neck And Neuro (19 decks)

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