Foundations of psych - Research methods

Question 1

Descriptive methods

Answer 1

○ Often concerned with a single variable of interest
○ Involve the systematic observation and classification of behaviour

Question 2

Examples of descriptive methods

Answer 2

Surveys
- Allow us to gather large amount of information quickly and easily
Focus groups and interviews
- Can provide rich, detailed information that may be lacking from a survey
Case studies and observational research
- Can provide important insights and stimulate further research to test specific hypotheses

Question 3

Problems with descriptive methods

Answer 3

Reactivity (ex. the Hawthorne effect)
- When people know they are being observed, they might change their behaviour
Observer/experimenter bias
Self-report bias
- Social desirability bias
- The “better-than-average” effect

Question 4

Correlational methods

Answer 4

• Examine associations between two or more variables
• Involve examining how variables are related without manipulating any of the variables
• Single group of participants, at least 2 measures (variables of interest)
• Allow researchers to make claims about associations between variables, but not causal claims

Question 5

Problems with correlational methods

Answer 5

• These studies do not tell us whether one variable causes changes in another variable
• Directionality problem A <–> B
• Third variable problem A <– C –> B

Question 6

Experimental methods

Answer 6

Examine cause-and-effect relationships between two or more variables

Question 7

Variables

Answer 7

Independent variable
- Variable that is manipulated in order to see its impact on the dependent variable
Dependent variables
- Variables that are measured in order to see how it is affected by the independent variable

Question 8

Experiments

Answer 8

• Involve manipulating an independent variable to determine its impact on a dependent variable (which we measure)
• Are tightly controlled (typically take place in laboratory)
• Participants are randomly assigned to study conditions

Question 9

Confound

Answer 9

• Anything that may unintentionally vary along with the independent variable
• Limit our ability to make causal claims

Question 10

Random assignment

Answer 10

• Each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any condition in the study
• Necessary component of an experiment, because this ensures that your different groups are equivalent on average

Question 11

Random sample

Answer 11

• Each member of the population you are interested in has an equal chance of being chosen to participate

Question 12

Double-blind experiments

Answer 12

• Participant and researcher are unaware of the condition the participants are in

Question 13

Quasi-experiments

Answer 13

• Experimental design where random assignment is not possible
• Ex. researcher takes advantage of pre-existing groups
• Risk of potential confounds limits the claims that a researcher can make
• But they can be very useful for studying variables where random assignment isn’t feasible or ethical

Question 14

Field experiments

Answer 14

• Experiments that occur in real-world settings rather than in a laboratory
• Random assignment is possible however researchers have less control over the study
• Participants are often unaware of the study

Question 15

Population

Answer 15

• The group that you want to be able to generalize your findings to

Question 16

Sample

Answer 16

• The group of individuals from this population who are part of your study
  Types of samples
• Random samples
• Convenience samples

Question 17

Psychology’s WEIRD problem

Answer 17

Western
Educated
Industrialized
Rich
Democratic

Question 18

Naturalistic observation

Answer 18

• Passive observation
• Observers do not change or alter ongoing behaviour intentionally

Question 19

Participant observation

Answer 19

• Active observation
• The researcher is actively involved in the situation

Question 20

Laboratory observation

Answer 20

• Systematic observations are made within a laboratory setting (rather than in the ‘real world’)

Question 21

Descriptive methods subsequent claims

Answer 21

regarding the frequency of some behaviour

Question 22

Correlational methods subsequent claims

Answer 22

regarding the association between two variables

Question 23

Experimental methods subsequent claims

Answer 23

regarding the causal relationship between two variables

Question 24

Interrater reliability

Answer 24

The extent to which two or more raters (or observers, coders, examiners) agree

Question 25

Test-retest reliability

Answer 25

Measures the consistency of results when you repeat the same test on the same sample at a different point in time

Question 26

Construct validity

Answer 26

Operationalizations
- How valid are the measures used in the study?
I.E. How accurately (or appropriately) have the variables been operationalized?

Question 27

External validity

Answer 27

Generalizability
- How well would we expect the results of the study to generalize to people and contexts behind those in the study itself

Question 28

Internal validity

Answer 28

Causality
- How well has the study established a cause-and-effect relationship between variables
I.E. Are there confounds in the experiment?

Question 29

Descriptive statistics

Answer 29

• Organize data into meaningful patterns and summaries
• They describe the data
  Ex. percentages, counts, averages, correlations

Question 30

Inferential statistics

Answer 30

• Allow us to extend conclusions from a sample to a population
• Allow us to make inferences based on data
  These inferences are always probabilistic

Question 31

Reproducibility

Answer 31

• A study can be duplicated in method and/or analysis

Question 32

Replicability

Answer 32

• A study about a phenomenon produces similar results from a previous study of the same phenomenon
• Close/exact replications
• Conceptual replications