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Forensic Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Define Deviance.

A

Breaking society’s norms and values.

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2
Q

Define Crime.

A

An act or behaviour that breaks the law.

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3
Q

What’s the Problem with Defining Crime?

A

Variations between cultures: what’s considered a crime in one culture may not be in another.
Definitions of crime can change over time; homosexuality was illegal until the late 1960’s.

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4
Q

Define Official Statistics.

A

Government records of all recorded crimes from the previous year.
Based upon police reports and published annually by the Home Office.

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5
Q

What’s the problem with official statistics?

A

Lack validity as not all crime is recorded by or to the police.
Lack reliability as differences between police forces may cause some crimes to go unreported.
They inky count number of criminal acts, not number of criminals, so overall picture may be misleading.

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6
Q

Define Victim Surveys.

A

Use large random sample and ask them to document any crimes they have been a victim of in the past year.

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7
Q

What’s the problem with victim surveys?

A

Respondents may mix up years and report crime form previous years.
Some victims may be unaware that they have been a victim to a crime.

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8
Q

Define Offender Surveys.

A

Involve individuals volunteering the number and types of crimes they have committed.

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9
Q

What’s the Problem with Offender Surveys?

A

Lack validity as offenders are unlikely to be honest about the true extent of their criminality, cannot be accurate as offenders are unlikely to remember every single crime they’ve committed.

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10
Q

General Criticisms of Measuring Crime?

A

Hampered by the dark figure of crime, should take a multidisciplinary approach to get a more accurate picture of crime.

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11
Q

Define Offender Profiling?

A

An investigative tool used by law enforcement agencies to identify likely suspects and can be used to link cases that may have been committed by the same perpetrator.

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12
Q

What is the Top-Down Approach?

A

Uses evidence from the crime scene and previous similar crimes to create a profile.
Created by FBI, their behavioural science unit interviewed 36 sexually motivated serial killers to help create the approach.

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13
Q

What is an Organised Offender?

A

Actions are premeditated, clean up after the crime and usually choose the victim in advance.

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14
Q

What is a Disorganised Offender?

A

Unplanned crime, more likely to leave evidence behind and choose a random victim.

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15
Q

Evaluate the Top-Down Approach.

A
  • reductionist Approach: system is too simple as the modus operandi developers they may move from one type to the other.
  • can only be applied to sexually motivated criminals as they only interviewed sexually motivated killers.
  • Alison et al (2002) suggested the model is outdated.
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16
Q

What is the Bottom-Up Approach?

A

Developed by David Canter.

Relies heavily on computer databases of past crimes.

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17
Q

Evaluate the Bottom-Up Approach.

A
  • wider application as it can be used for numerous crimes.
  • profiles are useful but could mislead police about other possibilities.
  • could lead to a miscarriage of justice if used incorrectly.
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18
Q

What is Investigative Psychology?

A

Uses computer databases to identify possible links between a series of offences.
Surrounds the idea of interpersonal coherence (behaviour are Crime is similar to behaviour in everyday life).

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19
Q

Evaluate Investigative Psychology.

A
  • Canter and Heritage (1990) analysed 66 sexual assault cases and identified clear common patterns of behaviour.
  • scientific and objective.
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20
Q

What is Geographical Profiling?

A 
Used to make inferences about where the offender is likely to live.
Circle Theory (1993) - Canter.
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21
Q

Define a Marauder.

A

Commit crimes close to home.

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22
Q

Define a Commuter.

A

Travel away from home to offend.

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23
Q

Evaluate Geographical Profiling.

A
  • Lundrigan and Canter (2001) collected evidence from 120 murderers and found offenders home base was invariably located in the centre of the crime scene pattern.
  • objective
  • can be applied to crimes varying in severity.
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24
Q

What is Atavistic Form?

A

Lombroso (1876) suggests that someone is born criminal and could be identified by the way they look: he believed there a distinct biological class of people prone to criminality.

25
Q

Characteristics of an Atavistic Offender?

A
  • primitive features
  • large jaw
  • high cheek-bones
  • hawk-like nose
  • scanty beards
  • baldness
26
Q

What did Lombroso Find?

A

Studied 385 dead Italian criminals and 3839 living Italian criminals.
Found 40% had Atavistic characteristics.

27
Q

Evaluate Atavistic Form.

A
  • attempted to use empirical methods.
  • no control group
  • only used Italians
  • accused of scientific racism
  • physical features may be result of poverty or poor diet
  • lacks temporal validity
28
Q

Explain Neural Explanations for Criminality

A

Raine used PET scans and found abnormalities in the brains of violent criminals.
Most criminals had Antisocial Personality Disorder.
Found reduced activity in PFC (regulates emotions).
Criminals couldn’t control their emotions and did not feel guilt or remorse.
Prefrontal lobe developed later which explains peak on adolescent crimes.

29
Q

Evaluate Neural Explanations.

A
  • not every criminal has APD or abnormal brain structures so may only apply to a few cases.
  • does not consider free will.
  • high reliability because of scientific methods.
  • very reductionist.
  • Jim Fallon has the brain of a serial killer ( low activity in PFC) but has not killed anyone.
30
Q

Explain Genetic Explanations.

A

Having an extra Y chromosome could predispose you to crime.
XYY have above average height and low intelligence.
Warrior Gene or MAOA gene mutation is associated with increased aggression.
MAOA mutation causes low levels of serotonin, dopamine and noradrenaline which caused inappropriate violent/sexual behaviour.

31
Q

Evaluate Genetic Explanations.

A
  • biological determinism
  • very reductionist
  • diathesis-stress Model
  • anger management improves 92% Of anger in offenders so may not be biological
  • Jim Fallon had defective version of MAOA gene but is not a criminal.
32
Q

Explain Eysenk’s Theory Of Personality.

A

Suggests personality is innate and has a biological basis.
Individuals with a criminal personality will score highly on measures of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism.
They are difficult to condition and are cold and unfeeling .

33
Q

Evaluate Eysenck’s Theory.

A
  • Eysenck studied 2070 Male prisoners and 2422 Male controls and found that prisoners scored higher on his personality measures than the controls.
  • idea of one personality type for all criminal types is not plausible.
  • lack of validity as many argue the personality is ever changing.
  • accused of biological determinism as he says personality is unchanging
34
Q

Explain Kohlberg’s Stages Of Moral Development.

A

Created 6 stages of moral development which were split over 3 levels of morality.
Used a sample of 72 Chicago boys aged from 10-16, 58 Of whom were followed up at 3 yearly intervals for 20 years.
Criminals are more likely to be classed at pre-conventional level as this is characterised by immature resonating and avoid punishment.

35
Q

Evaluate Kohlberg’s Stages Of Moral Development.

A
  • Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning between female and Male non-offenders and 126 convicted offenders and found delinquent group to have less mature moral reasoning.
  • Rest (1979) suggested 1 in 14 slip back through the stages, not a linear process.
  • Thornton and Reid (1982) not all criminals have same degree of morality.
36
Q

Define Cognitive Distortions.

A

Errors or biases in people’s information processing system.

Link between cognitive distortions and the way criminals interpret other’s behaviour and justify their own.

37
Q

Define the Hostile Attribution Bias.

A

A tendency for violence due to a tendency to misinterpret the actions of others.

38
Q

Define Minimalisation.

A

Attempt to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence.

39
Q

Evaluate Cognitive Distortions.

A
  • led to improvements in treatments for violent or sex offenders.
  • Theory is only descriptive not explanatory, so may help when predicting recidivism but does not help explain why the crime initially occurred.
40
Q

Explain the Differential Association Hypothesis.

A

Suggests that interactions sigh others causes individuals to learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motivation for criminal behaviour.
Process of learning criminal behaviour by association involves all mechanisms involved in the learning approaches.

41
Q

Define Differential Associations.

A

Number of contacts with criminals over non-criminals.

42
Q

Evaluate the Differential Association Hypothesis.

A
  • Theory does not account for individual differences as some people may be more susceptible to the influence of others.
  • neglects to consider role of personality.
  • accounts for crimes of all ages and race and gender.
  • impossible to accurately test the frequency, duration and intensity of someone’s associations.
  • explains inter-generational crime.
43
Q

Outline the Psychodynamic Explanations for Criminals.

A

If superego is deficient than criminality is inevitable.
This is because the Id cannot be properly controlled and the individual is more likely to give in to impulses/urges.
A WEAK superego develops if same-sex parent is absent during Phallic Stage (fail to internalise moral values).
A DEVIANT superego develops if child internalises the morals of a criminal.
A OVER-HARSH superego develops if parent is overly harsh: individual commits offences to satisfy superegos need for punishment.
Bowlby’s maternal deprivation suggests affectionless psychopathy which causes the criminality.

44
Q

Evaluate the Psychodynamic Explanations.

A
  • seen as sexist as Freud suggested women are less moral than men because girls don’t internalise their mother’s morals due to women’s low social status.
  • little evidence to support= many children grow up in single sex households and do not turn to crime.
  • over harsh superego doesn’t make sense as many criminals go to extreme lengths to avoid punishment.
45
Q

What are the aims of custodial sentencing?

A
  1. deterrence
  2. incapacitation - taking them away from society.
  3. retribution - takes away freedom to pay for their crimes.
  4. rehabilitation
46
Q

Evaluate the Aims of Custodial Sentencing.

A
  • prisoners may find it difficult to adapt to life outside of prison.
  • many prisoners are not effectively rehabilitated.
  • individual differences may mean its not effective for every criminal.
  • may help to refine criminals technique.
47
Q

What are the Psychological Effects Of Custodial Sentencing?

A
  1. Stress and Depression - suicide rates are higher in prison than the general population.
  2. Institutionalisation - some prisoners find it difficult to cope in society after release.
  3. Prisonisation - some unacceptable behaviours are encouraged or rewarded in prisons.
48
Q

Evaluate the Psychological Effects Of a Custodial Sentence.

A
  • zimbardo’s study demonstrates that prisoners became increasingly submissive and hysterical.
  • prisoners need to be well prepared for life outside prison.
  • Barton (1995) suicide rates were 15x higher and around 25% of women and 15% of men have symptoms of psychosis.
49
Q

Define Recidivism.

A

Re-offending.

50
Q

Explain Recidivism in Prisons.

A
  • aim of prison is to rehabilitate and punish to prevent reoffending.
  • 57% of offenders will reoffend within a year.
  • 67% of under 18’s are re-convicted within a year of release.
51
Q

Evaluate Recidivism.

A
  • punishment needs to suit the individual to ensure they are out of reoffending.
  • prison is clearly not working so alternatives should be considered.
52
Q

Define Restorative Justice.

A

Supervised mediation between a victim and the offender.

53
Q

Explain Restorative Justice.

A

Must be voluntary for all parties.
Requires offenders to be active in the process and can be tough to listen to the impacts upon the victim.
Offenders may offer concrete compensation or show genuine feelings of remorse and guilt.
Restores power back to victim and allows them to feel safe again.

54
Q

Evaluate Restorative Justice.

A
  • psychologically tough for both parties.
  • 85% satisfaction from victims.
  • Sherman and Strang (2007) found out of 142 male offenders who took part in RJ only 11% reoffended.
  • only be applied to crimes with an obvious victim.
  • cannot force someone to feel guilt or remorse.
  • may facilitate a negative reaction from the public.
55
Q

Explain Behaviour Modification.

A

Therapies based on Operant Conditioning to bring about specific changes in behaviour.
Rewarding appropriate behaviours and withholding rewards for inappropriate behaviours.
Works best with children or people in institutions as people can consistently observe and reward behaviours.
Can use token Economies.

56
Q

Evaluate Behaviour Modification.

A
  • Hobbs and Holt (1976) saw significant improvement in ‘good’ behaviour in young boys after the introduction of token economies.
  • easy to implement and don’t require specialist training.
  • patients may be improving due to increased attention and monitoring.
  • may not actually change people’s behaviour.
  • is it ethical to withhold privileges?
  • Felid (2004) suggested rewards must be tailored to individuals to facilitate an actual change in behaviour.
57
Q

Explain Anger Management.

A

A from of CBT.
Offenders are encouraged to reflect on their behaviour and what makes them angry.
They’re shown how/why their response is irrational.
Offenders are then taught a range of techniques on how to avoid and deal with triggers.
Offenders practice their skills using role play.

58
Q

Evaluate Anger Management.

A
  • its an eclectic approach and recognises the complex interaction between psychological and social factors.
  • more likely to lead to a permanent change in behaviour as it helps change how the offender thinks as well as acts.
  • lack of re-offending data.
  • Limited Application as not all crimes are anger motivated.
  • very expensive and time consuming.
  • Ireland (2000) found 92% of offenders improved on at least one measure of anger compared to a control group.

Psychology (21 decks)

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