FNS 121 Final Exam Flashcards
ANATOMY
examines the structures of the body.
PHYSIOLOGY
considers the function of the structures.
CELL THEORY:
- All living things are made up of cells.
- Cells are the basic unit of structure/function.
- All cells come from pre-existing cells.
What are the levels of organization ?
Cell, tissue , organ, organ system , organism
Cell
white blood cells (leukocyte), nerve cells, muscle cells, red blood cells (erythrocyte), neurons
Tissue
- epithelial-covering/lining, 2. connective-support, 3. muscular-movement, 4. nervous-control
ORGAN
skin, heart, kidney, lungs, gallbladder, spleen
ORGAN SYSTEM:
respiratory, digestive, endocrine, skeletal, circulatory
ORGANISM
human, wildebeest, bacteria, euglena, plants *NOT viruses
CHARACTERISTICS OF A LIVING THING:
- MOVE: willful change in body position; function of internal organs
- GROW: increase in body size w/o change in body shape
- REPRODUCE: produce new cells/organisms
- RESPONSIVENESS: react to external stimuli
- PERFORM CHEMICAL ACTIVITIES: digestion, excretion, respiration, absorption, circulation, assimilation
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM:
- ANIMAL: human, wildebeest, horse, swan, dolphin
- PLANT: tree, daffodil, mistletoe, pumpkin, dandelion
- FUNGI: mushroom, yeast, mold, rusts, mildews
- MONERA: single-cell organisms like bacterium, spirillum, bacillus, strep
- PROTISTA: single-cell organisms like amoeba, euglena, protozoa, some algae/molds
MEMBRANES:
- VISCERAL [ORGAN]: covers a vital organ, ex. visceral pleura or visceral pericardium
- PARIETAL [WALL/CAVITY]: lines a cavity, ex. parietal pleura or parietal pericardium
- SEROUS FLUID: present in all cavities (name remains unchanged)
MEMBRANES:
- VISCERAL [ORGAN]: covers a vital organ, ex. visceral pleura or visceral pericardium
- PARIETAL [WALL/CAVITY]: lines a cavity, ex. parietal pleura or parietal pericardium
- SEROUS FLUID: present in all cavities (name remains unchanged)
MIDSAGITTAL
vertical plane that divides the body equally into right/left portions
CORONAL
frontal plane that divides the body into anterior/posterior portions
TRANSVERSE
horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior portions
OBLIQUE
diagonal plane dividing the body at an angle
SAGITTAL
vertical plane that divides the body into lateral right/left portions (not equal or median)
What are the four quadrants ?
Right upper quadrant
Right lower quadrant
Left upper quadrant
Left lower quadrant
What’s are the nine regions
1 & 3 right/left hypochondriac, 2 epigastric, 4 & 6 right/left lumbar, 5 umbilical, 7 & 9 right/left iliac/inguinal, and 8 hypogastric; start with labeling anatomical right/left; region #5 is umbilical
SUPERIOR
above another part
INFERIOR
below another part
ANTERIOR
ventral) towards front
POSTERIOR
dorsal) towards back
MEDIAL
midline of the body; middle
LATERAL
towards the side; away from mid-line/median
PROXIMAL
part closer to the point of attachment/trunk than another part (as a point of reference)
DISTAL
part further from the point of attachment/trunk than another part (as a point of reference)
SUPERFICIAL
near the surface
DEEP
more internal; away from the surface
The four quadrant body plan
Imaginary line created on the abdomen of the deceased
Helps to locate underlying viscera
Gross anatomy
the study of form and function of an organism which can be done without the aid of a microscope.
Histology
The study of tissues
Systemic
Throughout the entire system of the organism
Regional
Only specific to a localized area
Pathological
The study of diseased cells/tissues/etc
Topographical
Surface references to locate deeper lying structures.
Physiological
The study of function of an organism
Body plan
Vertebral column 7 cervical vertiebrae 12 thoracic vertebrae 5 lumbar vertebrae 5 sacral 1 coccyx
Body Cavities
Cranial cavity Spinal cavity Ventral cavity -thoracic cavity -abdominal cavity -abdmoninopelvic cavity -pelvic cavity
Cranial
Brain
Spinal
Spinal cord
Ventral
Thoracic
-lungs, mediastinum, thymus, heart, esophagus, trachea
Abdominopelvic
Abdominal
-stomach, liver, spleen, gall bladder, small intestine, large intestine
Pelvic
Urinary bladder , internal reproductive organs
Body region
Head -Cranium -Face Neck (cervical) Trunk (torso) -thorax -Abdomen -Pelvis Upper extremities Lower extremities
Body Regions
Axial Skeleton
Considered the ‘body proper” Head, neck, and abdominal area
Appendicular Skeleton
Consists of : upper extremities and lower extremities
Four basic tissues
Epithelial (covering/lining)
Connective (support)
Muscular (movement)
Nervous (control)
Visceral membrane
Covers a vital organ
Parietal membrane
Lines a body cavity
Serous fluid
Between membranes for lubrication
Visceral pleura
Surface of the lungs
Parietal pleura
Lines the cavity of the lungs
Pleural cavity
Filled with serous fluid
Visceral pericardium
Surface of the heart
Parietal pericardium
Lines the cavity of the heart
Pericardial cavity
Filled with serous fluid
Visceral peritoneum
Surface of the liver, stomach, etc
Parietal peritomeum
Lines the cavity of the abdomen
Peritoneal cavity
Filled with serous fluid
ORGANELLE
Tiny organ
NUCLEUS
The brain;” largest part of cell;
MITOCHONDRIA
Energy source
RIBOSOMES
Make proteins
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SMOOTH
Provides transport-no proteins; L/S (look like roads off of nucleus)
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ROUGH)
Provides transport-WITH proteins; L/S (look like roads off of nucleus with ribosomes/dots on them)
LYSOSOMES
Help digest waste/worn cell parts
LYSOSOMES
enzymes speed reaction of excretion
NUCLEOLUS
Contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic) acid of cell; R/S-small circle inside the nucleus
CELL MEMBRANE:
Outer wall of cell
GOLGI APPARATUS (COMPLEX):
The packaging site of cell (performs similar function as colon does for human body); looks like a “stack of pancakes” above the nucleus
CYTOPLASM
Clear gel-like substance that all organelles are suspended in
VACUOLE
Storage site or ‘pantry’ of the cell;
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE/MEMBRANE:
The membrane around the cell nucleus that regulates what comes in/out;
CILIA
Short, hair-like projections used for movement
FLAGELLA
Long whip-like tails for movement; sing. = flagellum
PSUEDOPDODIA
False feet;” cells used cytoplasmic streaming to propel themselves (ex. amoeba)
GOLGI VESICLE
packets of unwanted waste/material that will travel to membrane to be released; L/S blank under vacuole; represented by small dots next to Golgi apparatus
PINOCYTOIC VESICLE
place in cell membrane that allows waste to pass out
CENTRIOLES
look like flowers; important in the cell cycle/mitosis
CELL MEMBRANE:
First line of defense; protects cell from the environment; maintains the integrity of the cell; “selectively permeable” in that it regulates what comes in/out of cell
NUCLEUS:
The brain;” controls all metabolic function of the cell
CYTOPLASM:
comprised of a clear gel-like substance (cytosol) that holds all of the organelles of the cell; keeps the cell vital and functioning
Animal cells
Round or ovoid in structure
Plant cells
Square or rectangular ; also have cell walls in addition to cell membranes
HYPOTONIC
A hypotonic solution has lower osmotic pressure meaning more water can enter the cell than can exit; the membrane of the cell can rupture and the cell die (ex. water balloon) *she called this plasmoptysis in class; book says they hemolyze
HYPERTONIC
: A hypertonic solution has higher osmotic pressure meaning that more water will exit the cell than can enter; the cell shrinks and can die (ex. grape to raisin) *she called this plasmolysis
ISOTONIC
The ideal solution for cells; equal passage of water in/out resulting in no change for the cells; an isotonic solution has the same osmotic pressure as body fluids
DIFFUSION
The movement of atoms/molecules/ions to move from area of higher concentration to area of lower concentration (ex. perfume)
OSMOSIS
The diffusion of water molecules across membranes; specific only to water
FILTRATION
The separation of solids from fluids (blood pressure forces filtration through capillaries)
MITOSIS
Cell division of somatic (normal body) cells; DOES NOT include sex or gamete cells; 4 main stages (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase)
MEIOSIS
The means in which sex cells or gametes reproduce
The cell life cycle
Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase, apoptosis
INTERPHASE
we added the drawing of a basic cell with nucleus; this is the state in which a cell spends most of its time growing and preparing for mitosis
PROPHASE
chromosomes are becoming visible; nuclear membrane disappears; centrioles appear/become visible; spindle fibers (long) and aster rays (short) appear
METAPHASE
centrioles move to opposite sides/poles of the cell; chromosomes move to the middle of the cell; spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes
ANAPHASE
chromosomes pulled apart and moved to opposite poles/sides of the cell by the spindle fibers; the cell elongates in preparation to divide (looks more ovoid)
TELEPHASE
cleavage furrow appears; spindle fibers disappear; cytoplasm disappears so cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) can occur; nuclear membrane reappears as part of karyokinesis (division of nucleus); end up with two identical daughter cells that are identical to the original cell
APOPTOSIS
Cell death also called “programmed cell death” since it is part of the normal development of the cell
Cell/plasma membrane
Selectively permeable
Nucleus
Controls all of the metabolic activity of the cell
Cytoplasm
Contains all of the organelles
Ribosomes
Responsible for synthesizing ( making) proteins
Can be found free-floating writhing the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum
Responsible for transporting proteins
Endoplasmic reticulum is called ____________ if it has ribosomes attached to it
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
The endoplasmic reticulum is called _______________ if there are no ribosomes attached to it
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
Vesicles
Small sacs that transport material (particularly wastes material) throughout the cell
Can be found around the Golgi apparatus and sometimes the Rough endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus/Complex is responsible
For packaging up material that needs to be expelled from the cell
Vesicles around the Golgi will take waste material from the
Golgi and fuse with the cell membrane in order to rid the waste from the cell
Mitochondria
Are responsible for providing the cell with energy
Energy stored from mitochondria is stored as
Adenosine triphosphate
Lysosomes are
digesting worn out cell parts using enzymes
Nucleons contains what information >
Genetic information of the cell
DNA or RNA
Nuclear envelope is responsible for
regulating what materials can enter/exit the nucleus
Diffusion
The movement of molecules from and area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Osmosis
The movement of water molecules from and area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
Hypertonic –
the amount of water exiting the cell is greater than the amount of water entering the cell.
Plasmolysis
Can occur , cell shrinks and dies
Isotonic
The amount of water entering the cell is equal to the amount of water exiting the cell .
Hypotonic
The amount of water entering the cell is greater than the amount of water exiting the cell .
Plasmoptysis
Can occur; cell swells, ruptures and dies.
Endocytosis
The process by which cells take in materials
Phagocytosis
The process in which cells take in solid matter
Pinocytosis
The process by which cells take in liquid matter
Exocytosis
The process by which cells expels material, whether it is a solid or a liquid.
Interphase
Nucleus clearly defined •Chromosomes not visible •Cell is preparing for mitosis •Mitosis – the cellular division of somatic cells •Consists of four stages
Prophase
First stage of mitosis
•Chromosomes become long and thin
•Centrioles, aster rays, and spindle fibers appear during this stage
•The nuclear envelope is initial intact, but eventually disappears
•Toward the end of prophase, the chromosomes pair
Metaphase
Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
•Spindle fibers attach to each side of the chromosomes
•Centrioles and aster rays migrate to opposite poles of the cell
Anaphase
Chromosomes are pulled apart and migrate toward opposite poles of the cell
•Cell shape begins to elongate as two cells begin to develop
Telophase
Two daughter cells develop that are identical to the original parent cell
•Spindle fibers and aster rays disappear
•The nuclear envelop reforms
•Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) occurs
•Karyokinesis (division of the nucleus)occurs
HISTOLOGY
is the study of tissues; there are FOUR types of tissue: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
covers the body
LAYERS
Layers start at the BASEMENT MEMBRANE (which has a basal layer-top and a reticular fiber layer-bottom) which is the point of attachment for cells.
Simple
Only one layer of cells; all cells touch the basement membrane (check nuclei)
Stratified
More than one layers of cells; not all cells touch the basement layer
Psuedostratified
Falsely” layered; all cells touch the basement membrane (check nuclei)
SHAPE
Squamous, cubiodal, columnar, transitional
Squamous:
Flat; look like “fried eggs” along basement membrane
Cuboidal:
Cube-shaped along basement membrane
Columnar:
Column or rectangular looking along basement membrane
Transitional
Change shape up layers; understood it’s stratified so label it “transitional E.T.”
CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
ADIPOSE (fat tissue) is most important to funeral student due to water content; we also discussed cartilage, bone, and blood.
ADIOPOCYTES
Fat cells; so full of water that water pushes or flattens nucleus of cell to the side; this water produces a “secondary dilution” of arterial fluid in embalming process and could require a higher strength or concentration (index number) of embalming solute/solution; remember her drawing on the board and discussion regarding embalming a 300lb body vs. a 98lb body
CARTILAGE
Listed from most flexible (least visible muscle fibers) to least flexible (most visible muscle fibers/dense matrix).
Hyaline
Very flexible; ex. ribs in thoracic cavity or tip of nose
Elastic
Medium flexibility; ex. external parts of ear (inner rim)
Fibrocartilage
Least flexible; ex. pubic symphysis or joints (book says it acts as a “shock absorber”)
Epiphysis
Ends of long bone (such as femur)
Diaphysis
Shaft of long bone (such as femur)
Spongy or cancellous bone
The end of long bone where red blood cells are made via hematopoesis
Compact bone:
Outer edge of long bones; contains Osteons
▪ The second diagram on page one of the handout deals with Osteons or compact bone, and she used an analogy to help remember parts: osteons look like tree ring/neighborhoodss and contain osteocytes (bone cells)/homes that are black dashes; lacunas/yards are the space around osteocytes/homes; osteocytes/homes are on lamellas (the space between concentric rings of osteons)/streets; canaliculi (cytoplasmic projections)/phone lines provide communication between osteocytes/homes; and the Haversian or central canal acts as the power source for the osteon/neighborhood.
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells; have NO nuclei and are bi-concave shaped; transport oxygen in the blood; most predominant cell seen in diagram
Leukocytes
White blood cells; fight infection in the body
Leukocytes
White blood cells; fight infection in the body
▪ Granulocytes: Can see the odd-shaped nuclei and granules inside cell (three types are eosinophil, basophil, and neutrophil)
▪ Agranulocytes: Generally very large with a large singular nucleus (two types are lymphocyte and monocyte)
Thrombocytes
Platelets; cytoplasmic fragments that help blood coagulate/clot
MUSCULE TISSUE
There are three types of muscle tissue in the body (skeletal, smooth, and cardiac). They can be identified by 4 characteristics: striation (lines in tissue), voluntary vs. involuntary movement, how many nuclei are present, and whether tissue branches or not.
SKELETAL MUSCLE
Attached to points on the skeleton, this is muscle that can be moved at will or voluntarily; it is striated; has multiple nuclei; and is unbranched
SMOOTH MUSCLE
Muscle that line the majority of our hollow internal organs; cannot be moved at will so is involuntary; no striations/non-striated; mono-nucleated; unbranched
CARDIAC MUSCLE
Muscle found only in the heart; involuntary; striated; mono-nucleated; branched; also has intercalated discs
Nervous Tissue
- NEURON: Nerve cell
- Soma: Cell body of a neuron
- Nucleus: Center of soma; takes and sends impulses
- Axon: Takes impulses away from soma (A=axon, A=away); long tail coming off soma
- Axon Hillock: Region where soma and axon meet
- Dendrites: Delivers impulses to the soma (D=dendrite, D=deliver); all along body of soma
- Neurolinglial Cells: Small dots surrounding soma that nourish the Central Nervous System (CNS)
What are four tissues ?
Epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous
Hyaline Cartilage
Most flexible
Elastic cartilage
Moderately flexible
Fibrocartilage
Least flexible
Skeletal muscle
Voluntary •Striated •Multinucleated •Unbranched •Attached to the skeleton
Cardiac muscle
Involuntary •Striated •Mononucleated •Branched •Intercalated discs separated each cardiac muscle cell
Smooth muscle
Involuntary
•Non-striated
•Mononucleated
•Unbranched
Neuron
A nerve cell
Parts of the neuron
Axon •Dendrite •Soma •Axon hillock •Neuroglial cells
Muscles that move neck/head
Sternocleidomastoid
STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID
Creates widest portion of the neck; Anatomical guide for finding the carotid artery for arterial embalming; named for origin/insertion: origin—sternum and upper surface of clavicle, insertion—mastoid process
MUSCLES OF MASTICATION/CHEWING
MASSETOR: Thick, flat quadrilateral muscle that raises and lowers jaw; origin—lower border of zygomatic arch, insertion—lateral surface of the mandible
• TEMPORALIS: The largest and strongest muscle of mastication; fan-shaped and located above the ear; named for location: located over temporal bone
Muscles that move that pectoral girdle
Trapezius, lavatory scapulae, pectoral is minor
TRAPEZIUS:
Raises the bones of the pectoral girdle (clavicles and scapulae); origin—occipital bone/cervical and thoracic vertebrae, insertion—clavicle/spine/scapula; named for its shape: it’s a trapezoid
LEVATOR SCAPULAE
Named for its function: it raises the scapula; origin—cervical vertebrae, insertion—medial margin of scapula
PECTORALIS MINOR
Thin flat muscle that assists the pectoralis major (which moves the arm); raises ribs and pulls scapula forward and downward
Muscles that move the arm
Coracobrachialis , perctorialis major, latissimus Dorsi, deltoid, subscaplaris, infraspinatus, supraspinatus
CORACOBRACHIALIS
Flexes and adducts arm; origin—scapula, insertion—shaft of humerus
PECTORALIS MAJOR:
Flexes, adducts, and rotates arm; origin—clavicle/sternum/ribs, insertion—humerus
LATISSIMUS DORSI:
Wings of the back;” named for location: on the dorsal side of the body; Mr. Jones (and swimmers) have nice definition in these muscles
DELTOID
Flexes, adducts, and extends arm; located at top of arm/shoulder; named for its shape: it’s a triangle
SUBSCAPULARIS
Rotates arm medially; named for location: located on the underside of scapula
INFRASPINATUS
Rotates arm laterally; named for location: located below the spine of scapula
SUPRASPINATUS
Rotates arm laterally; named for location: located above the spine of scapula
Muscles that move the forearm
Biceps brachii, brachialis , brachioradialis, triceps brachii
BICEPS BRACHII
Rotates arm laterally and flexes elbow; named for divisions of attachment: two heads/bellies
BRACHIALIS
Flexes elbow; named for location: located next to brachial vessel; origin—anterior shaft of humerus, insertion—ulna
BRACHIORADIALIS
Flexes elbow; Flexes elbow; named for location: located next to radius; origin—distal lateral end of humerus, insertion—lateral surface of radius
TRICEPS BRACHII:
Extends elbow; named for divisions of attachment: three heads/bellies
Muscles that move the hand
Flexor carpi radialis, flexor Carib ulnar is, extensor digitorum
FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS:
Reduce angle of wrist on thumb side (flexes wrist/abducts hand); its name gives away location and function (literally flexes carpals along radius)
FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS:
Reduce angle of wrist on pinky side (flexes wrist/abducts hand); its name gives away location and function (literally flexes carpals along ulna)
EXTENSOR DIGITORUM:
Extends fingers; its name gives away function (literally extends digits)
Muscles of the abdominal wall
External obique, internal oblique, transverse abdominis, recuts add ominous, linea alba
EXTERNAL OBLIQUE
Most superficial oblique muscle of abdomen; origin—lower ribs, insertion—iliac crest/linea alba; named for depth/ direction of fibers: external and oblique (diagonal)
INTERNAL OBLIQUE:
Runs deep to the external oblique muscle of abdomen; origin—crest of ilium/inguinal ligament, insertion—cartilage of lower ribs/linea alba/pubis; named for depth/direction of fibers: internal and oblique (diagonal)
TRANSVERSE ABDOMINIS:
Deepest layer of abdominal muscle; origin—costal cartilage of lower ribs/lumbar vertebrae/iliac crest/inguinal ligament, insertion—linea alba/crest of pubis; named for direction of fibers/location: transverse (horizontal) and abdomen
RECTUS ABDOMINUS:
Six pack” muscles; long strap-like muscles; origin—pubis, insertion—xiphoid process and costal cartilages; can compress abdomen and flex vertebrae
LINEA ALBA:
The aponeurosis that connects rectus abdominus; most medial aponeurosis of body
Muscles that move the thigh (7)
PSOAS MAJOR: [So-Es] anatomical landmark for finding the external iliac artery for arterial embalming (especially important in post-mort cases or if arterial system is compromised); origin—lumbar vertebrae, insertion—femur
• GLUTEUS MAXIMUS: Largest and strongest muscle in the body; named for size: it’s big
• GLUTEUS MINIMUS: Assists the gluteus maximus; named for size: it’s not big
• ADDUCTOR BREVIS: Part of femoral triangle; named for function: adducts thigh; brevis means short
• ADDUCTOR LONGUS: Part of femoral triangle; anatomical landmark for finding the femoral artery; named for function: adducts thigh; longus means long
• ADDUCTOR MAGNUS: Part of femoral triangle; named for function: adducts thigh; magnus means large
• GRACILIS: Most medial muscle along inside of thigh
Muscles that move the leg (7total02 groups, 1 lone muscle) 4 front , 3 back, 1 strap .
SARTORIS: Strap-like muscle that crosses thigh from hip (lateral) to knee (medial) on anterior side of thigh
HAMSTRING GROUP: The posterior set of muscles along the back of thigh; generally flex and rotate knee.
• Biceps femoris: Named for divisions of attachment: two heads (biceps) along femur
• Semitendinosus: Runs along medial surface of tibia
• Semimembranosus: Runs along medial condyle of tibia
QUADRICEPS GROUP: The anterior set of muscles along the front of thigh; generally extend knee. CHICKEN LEG.
• Rectus femoris: Most anterior, superficial layer of muscle; like the first fleshy tear-drop of meat you bite off of a chicken leg
• Vastus lateralis: Lateral side of the anterior portion of the thigh
• Vastus medialis: Medial side of the anterior portion of the thigh
• Vastus intermedius: Runs in-between (intermedial) the lateral and medial muscles on anterior muscle group, UNDER the rectus femoris; like the last bit of meat you strip off a chicken leg bone
Muscles that move the foot (6)
leg.
• TIBIALIAS ANTERIOR: Dorsiflexion (on heel) and inversion (toes inward) of foot; origin—tibia, insertion—tarsal; named for location: on anterior of tibia
• GASTROCNEMIUS: Plantar flexion (on toes) of foot and flexes knee; has a laterial and medial head; forms calf with soleus; origin—condyles of femur, insertion—posterior surface of calcaneus
• SOLEUS: Thick, fan-shaped muscle under gastrocnemis (forms calf with gastrocnemius); plantar flexion of foot; origin—head & shaft of fibula/posterior surface of tibia, insertion—posterior surface of calcaneous
• PLANTARIS: Long strap-like muscle between soleus and gastrocnemis; named for function: plants foot; origin—femur, insertion—calcaneus; posterior to knee
• TIBIALIS POSTERIOR: Plantar flexion and inversion of the foot; deepest of the muscles on the back of the leg (runs behind tibia); helps connect fibula and tibia to ankle bones
• FIBULARIS LONGUS: Long, strap-like muscle on lateral side of leg; runs alongside fibula and connects bones via a tendon that passes the lateral malleolus
4
Arthrology
The Study of Joints
A joint
is an articulation (union) or two or more bones.
Immovable joints
Sutures are only between flat bones of the skull where the broad margins of adjacent bones grow together and unite by a thin layer of dense connective tissue called a sutural ligament.
Slightly movable joints
Only limited movement is possible.
●Example - pubic symphysis and the sacro-iliac articulation
Freely movable joints
Synovial joints allow free movement and they are more complex structurally than fibrous or cartilaginous joints.
●Example - hip and shoulder(ball-and-socket), elbow and knee (hinge)
Total bones in the body
206
Function of the skeletal system
Support and protection ●Movement ●Bone cell formation (hematopoiesis) ●Inorganic salt storage ●Energy storage
Bone Structure
Bones are classified according to their shape:
●Long bones consist of a shaft with two ends – Ex: femur, humerus
●Short bones are cube-like – Ex: carpals, tarsals
●Flat bones are thin and usually curved – Ex: sternum, most skull bones
●Irregular bones are not long, short, or flat. Ex: vertebrae
●Sesamoid bones develop within a tendon. Ex: patella
Axial (80 bones)
Skull (22 bones and 6 ear ossicles) ●Hyoid (1 bone) ●Vertebrae (26 bones) ●Sternum (1 bone) ●Ribs (24 bones)
Appendicular (126 bones)
Upper extremities and pectoral girdle (64 bones
●Lower extremities and pelvic girdle (62 bones)
Frontal
Articulates:
●Along the coronal suture with the parietal bones
●Parts of the frontal bone include: supraorbital margins, superciliary arches, glabella, frontal eminences, frontal sinuses
Parietal
Articulates:
●Anteriorly with frontal bones at the coronal suture
●Posteriorly with the occipital bone at the lambdoidal suture
●Laterally with temporal bones at squamous suture;
●Between bones at sagittal suture
Occipital bone
Articulates:
●With paired parietal bones along the lambdoidal suture
●Contains the foramen magnum (“large hole”) and the external occipital protuberance
●Occipital condyles - rounded processes on either side of foramen magnum which articulate with the first vertebra (atlas)
Temporal bones
Articulates: ●Inferiorly to parietal bones at squamous suture (appropriately called the squamous portion) ●Petrous portion – ●Ear ossicles (6) ●Malleus (2) ●Incus (2) ●Stapes (2) ●Carotid canal ●Parts of the temporal bones: ●Zygomatic processes ●External auditory meatus ●Styloid processes ●Mastoid process ●Mandibular fossa
Sphenoid bone (1)
Butterfly shaped bone; spans the floor of the cranium
●Contains
●Sphenoid sinuses
●Sella turcica (supports the pituitary gland)
Ethmoid bone
Complex shape; on either side of the nasal cavity
●Contains
●Ethmoid sinuses
●Cribiform plate
●Perpendicular plate (forms superior portion of the nasal septum)
●Crista galli (serves as attachment for the meninges)
Facial Bones (14)
Nasal bones (2)
●Form bridge of the nose
•Lacrimal bones (2)
●Median walls of orbit
•Zygomatic bones (2)
●Cheek bones; temporal process projects posteriorly and articulates with the zygomatic process of temporal bone
•Maxillary bones (maxilla) 2
●Upper jaw; contains the alveolar process and maxillary sinus
•Palatine process (2)
●Posterior portion of the hard palate; contains the maxillary process
Facial Bones (con’t)
Vomer (1) ●Inferior portion of the nasal septum •Inferior nasal concha •Mandible (1) ●Lower jaw; composed of ●Body ●Alveolar process ●Mental protuberance ●Angle ●Ramus
Bones of the Axial Skeleton
Hyoid bone ●In neck, between lower jaw and larynx ●Supports tongue •Veterbral column ●Cervical vertebrae #1 – atlas ●Cervical vertebrae #2 – axis •Sternum ●Manubrium ●Body ●Xyphoid process
Ribs
12 pair
●True ribs – upper 7
●False ribs – remaining 5
●Floating ribs – 11th and 12th pair (do not articulate anteriorly)
Bones of the Upper Extremities and Pectoral Girdle
Clavicle (2) – collar bone •Scapula (2) – shoulder blade •Humerus (2) – upper arm bone •Radius (2) – forearm bone (thumb-side) •Ulna (2) – forearm bone (pinky-side) •Carpals (16) – wrist bones •Metacarpals (10) – hand •Phalanges (28) - fingers
Bones of the Lower Extremities and Pelvic (hip) Girdle
Os coxa (2)
●Ilium: largest uppermost flaring portion
●Iliac crest – prominence of the hip; contains the acetabulum (articulates with the head of the femur); hole in each coxal bone is obturator foramen)
●Ischium: lowest, L-shaped portion
●Pubis: anterior portion
●Bladder rests upon it; articulates at the pubic symphsis
•Femur (2) – thigh
•Patella (2) – kneecap
Bones of the Lower Extremities and Pelvic (hip) Girdle (con’t)
Tibia (2) – shin bone
●note the location of the medidal malleolus (bulge of the ankle)
•Fibula (2) – thin bone lateral to the tibia
●note the location of the lateral malleolus (lateral ankle bulge)
•Tarsals (14) – ankle bones
●Talus – articulates with the tibia and fibula
●Calcaneus – heel bone
•Metatarsals (10) – foot
•Phalanges (28) – toes
PURPOSE OF SKELETON:
Support and protection
▪ Movement: in conjunction with muscles
▪ Bone cell formation: Hematopoiesis or formation of erythrocytes/red blood cells in “spongy bone” at the end of cancellous or long bones
▪ Inorganic salt storage: Na, Ca, K, Mg stored in diaphysis/compact bone
▪ Energy storage: Epiphyseal plate marks transition from compact bone to spongy bone where fat or “yellow marrow” is stored
AXIAL SKELETON:
80 bones located in head, neck, torso
APPENDICULAR SKELETON:
126 bones located in upper and lower extremities
PECTORAL GIRDLE:
Superior (top) half; 64 bones
PELVIC GIRDLE
Inferior (lower) half; 62 bones
BONE CLASSIFICATIONS:
LONG BONES: Shaft with two ends (ex. humerus, femur)
o SHORT BONES: Cube like bones (ex. carpals in wrists, tarsals in ankle)
o FLAT BONES: Thin and usually curved (ex. sternum, ribs, cranial bones)
o IRREGULAR BONES: Not long, short, or flat (ex. vertebrae)
o SESAMOID or ROUND BONES: Small and nodular, embedded in tendons, and articulate with joints (ex. patella)
ARTHROLOGY
The study of joints
JOINT
An articulation (union) of two or more bones
SUTURES
Immovable joint; between flat bones of the skull where the broad margins of adjacent bones grow together and unite by a thin layer of connective tissue called a sutural ligament; ex. five (5) cranial sutures or fontanels, which do not seal/harden until between ages 19-25
Coronal suture
Posterior to the frontal bone; anterior to parietal bones
Sagittal suture
Runs medial between parietal bones; anterior meets coronal suture/frontal bone; posterior meets lamboidal suture/occipital bone
Squamous sutures (2
One on both the right and the left, separating the parietal bone and the temporal bone
Lamboidal suture:
Posterior to the parietal bones; anterior to the occipital bone; perpendicular to the sagittal suture
ATTACHMENTS/CONNECTIVE TISSUE:
Tendons: Attach muscle to bone
▪ Ligaments: Attach bone to bone, usually at a joint
▪ Aponeurosis: Attach muscle to muscle
FORAMEN
Hole
SINUS
Cavity in skull to reduce the weight of bone
PROCESS
Projection (ex. mastoid process)
MEATUS
Passageway (ex. external auditory meatus)
FOSSA
Shallow depression (ex. mandibular fossa)
CONDYLE
Rounded process at the end of a bone, usually at the articular end (ex. mandibular condyle)
CRANIAL BONES:
Eight (8) in total; need to know all eight; all flat except sphenoid and ethmoid
FRONTAL
Articulates at coronal suture anterior to the parietal bones
FRONTAL
Supraorbital margins: Roof of the eye orbit
▪ Superciliary arches: Where your eyebrows would be
▪ Glabella: Space between eyes; superior to nasal bones
▪ Frontal eminences: Superior to eyebrows; part of forehead
▪ Frontal sinuses: Located above each eye at the midline; reduce weight of skull
PARIETAL
Articulates anteriorly with the frontal bone at the coronal suture; posteriorly with the occipital bone at the lamboidal suture; laterally at the temporal bones at the squamous suture; between right/left at the sagittal suture
OCCIPITAL
Articulates with paired parietal bones along the lamboidal suture; spans the floor of skull
Foramen magnum: “large hole;” where the inferior of brainstem connects to the spinal cord
TEMPORAL
Articulates inferiorly to parietal bones at squamous suture (on right and left)
TEMPORAL
Zygomatic processes: Projects anteriorly in region of external auditory meatus; joins temporal process/zygomatic bone to form prominence of cheek (zygomatic arch); height of cheekbones
▪ External auditory meatus: Near inferior of temporal bone; hole leads to interior of ear
▪ Styloid processes: Long, pointed projection on temporal bone; only portion of temporal bone unhelpful in restoration as it is to internal to be seen/felt
▪ Mastoid process: Rounded projection posterior to external ear where certain neck muscles attach
▪ Mandibular fossae: Depressions that articulate with the mandibular condyles
SPHENOID
Butterfly or moth shaped bone in the anterior floor of the cranium; contains sinuses
ETHMOID
Complex shaped bone located on either side of nasal cavity
ETHMOID
Ethmoid sinuses: Reduce weight in skull
▪ Cribiform plate: Looks sponge-like because it has openings for sense of smell; this is region that is pierced during embalming process
▪ Perpendicular plate: Superior portion of the nasal septum
▪ Crista galli: (Cock’s comb) Triangular point along cribiform plate that is point of attachment for brain’s membranes
FACIAL BONES: Fourteen (14) total
NASAL (2): Form bridge of the nose; one on each side; glabella is superior to nasal bones
o ZYGOMATIC (2): “Cheek bones” (or ‘apple’ of cheek); right and left
▪ Temporal process: Projects posteriorly and articulates with zygomatic process of temporal bone
o MAXILLARY (2): Upper jaw (right/left); meets at bottom of eye, forms sides and floor of nasal cavity, and holds upper teeth
o VOMER (1): Inferior portion of nasal septum (superior is the perpendicular plate); nose sits on top of vomer
o MANDIBLE (1): The single movable bone of the face; lower jaw bone; contains all lower teeth
▪ Body: The greater width of the mandible (includes mental foramen)
▪ Ramus: Vertical portion of the mandible
▪ Angle: The anterior corners of the mandible
▪ Mandibular condyle: Superior posterior of the ramus; articulates with the mandibular fossa
▪ Coronoid process: Superior anterior of the ramus; provides point of attachment for chewing muscles
▪ Alveolar process: Ridges that hold lower teeth in place (also called dental alveoli)
HE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
• GENERAL FUNCTION:
Respiration which is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and body cells. Ventilation means breathing and must be considered at the five organization levels and associated tasks.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The organism takes a breath (inhales), which is ventilation.*
o The organ system (nose, mouth, lungs) uses external respiration to move the air into the lungs.*
o The organs (lungs) transport gases to cells by way of the bloodstream.
o Tissue, in this case connective/blood, is involved in internal respiration which gets gases to red blood cells (RBCs).
o Cells, in this case RBCs, exchange CO2 to O2 using cellular respiration.
ORGANS include:
Nose: External nares/nostrils; bone/ cartilage with internal hairs that filter the air you breathe in.
o Nasal cavity: Hollow space behind nose; separated by the septum; bone/cartilage lined with mucous membranes that filter, warm, and moisten incoming air; conduct air to pharynx.
o Sinuses: Sinuses are cavities that reduce the weight of the skull and serve as resonant chambers; located in the ethmoid, sphenoid, maxillary, and frontal bones of the skull.
o Pharynx: “Throat;” nasopharynx, osopharynx, and laryngopharynx; wall of skeletal muscle lined with mucous membranes; passageway for air and food.
o Larynx: “Voice box;” home of the vocal cords; sits superior to the trachea and the esophagus sits posterior to the trachea; glottis is the opening of the larynx and epiglottis is the flap that covers and closes the larynx when you swallow to keep food etc. out of airway; laryngitis is an inflammation of the larynx.
o Trachea: “Windpipe;” located in the mediastinum extending from the larynx; looks a bit like a vacuum hose due to ridges of hyaline cartilage; anything above trachea is upper-respiratory, anything below is lower respiratory (basically lungs); origin of bronchi.
o Bronchial Tree: Located in the lungs; levels (bifurcations) to know: 1. Primary bronchi-the first parts to enter the lungs; 2. Secondary bronchi-branch into each lobe; 3. Tertiary bronchioles; 4.Terminal bronchioles-end of the bronchiole tree; 5. Respiratory bronchioles-start of respiratory branches; 6. Alveolar duct-passageway; 7. Alveoli sac-surrounds alveoli, full of capillaries that make embalming easier; 8. Alveoli-primary sites of gas exchange in the respiratory system
o Lungs: Right lung has three lobes (superior/upper, primary, and inferior/lower) and left has two lobes (superior/upper and inferior/lower) as well as the cardiac impression (room for the heart.
THE URINARY SYSTEM
• FUNCTION:
Elimination of wastes and fluids
Kidney
Bean-shaped organ that helps to regulate blood pressure, forms urine, helps to regulate blood composition, and aids in balancing body’s pH (indirectly affects the body’s cardiovascular system); kidneys are retroperitoneal and the right kidney sits lower than the left due to its location inferior to the right lobe of the liver
Ureter
Channels/tubes that allow urine to pass from the kidneys to the urinary bladder
Urinary Bladder:
Hollow organ that is able to distend or expand and store urine; lined with smooth muscle and transitional cells which allow for its flexibility; in females, bladder sits just under the uterus
Urethra
Allows urine to pass from urinary bladder to the outside of the body; longer in men than women
Nephro-/Renal:
If you see these terms, you can be fairly certain they refer to the urinary system (kidneys)
Renal Artery
Supplies oxygenated blood TO the kidney (arteries carry blood away from heart); meets the abdominal aorta
Renal Vein:
Sends blood back to the heart for oxygenation after filtering it (veins carry blood to the heart); meets the inferior vena cava
Renal Pyramids
Can be seen in cross-cuts; structures of the kidney that contain nephrons where urine is produced
Nephrons
Smallest unit in kidney; where urine is produced
Neprolith
Kidney stone
Neprolithiasis
Process by which kidney stones are formed
Urea
Precursor to uric acid which is main component of urine
Effects of Urea on formaldehyde:
Urea increases nitrogenous bases within urine and has a neutralizing effect on formaldehyde; ammonia (NH3) is a by-product that also neutralizes formaldehyde; increasing the strength of solution in some cases (ex. those who experienced renal failure) can keep it from being neutralized by ammonia
Composition of urine:
Urine is (or should be) 95% water (also contains urea and uric acid, as well as creatinine); pH can vary from 4.5 to 8 but 7.2 was described as “normal” in class lecture o pH scale: See below. 0-7: Acidic; 7: Neutral; 7-10: Alkaline/Basic. Vinegar is an
Respiration : Five Parts
Pulmonary ventilation* = breathing;
●External respiration* = air into lungs; gas exchange (O2 load/ CO2 unload); air out;
●Transport of respiratory gases = gases in blood transported from lungs to body cells and back to lungs;
●Internal respiration = exchange of gases at body capillaries (O2 unload/CO2 load).
●Cellular respiration = use of oxygen by cells to produce energy (production of CO2).
* Only these two portions are included in the respiratory system.
Organ of the respiratory system
Nose external nares or nostrils , bone and cartilage with internal hairs traps large particles.
Nasal cavity- bone and cartilage lined with mucous membrane and moistens incoming air .
Organs of the Respiratory System
Nasal conchae- superior , middle and inferior divide nasal cavity into a serine of groove-like passageways
Pharynx- wall of skeletal muscle line with mucous membranes.
Passageway for air and food
Nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
Organs of Respiratory System
Larynx( or voice box)
Thyroid cartilage, epiglottis closes off the airway during swallowing.
Two pairs of vocal folds
Glottis= triangular slit; opening between two pairs of vocal cords
Cricoid Cartilage= ring of hyaline cartilage attached to first ring of trachea; site of tracheotomy
Trachea (windpipe- Location: mediastinum; anterior to esophagus; extends from larynx to T5
Structure: 16-20 incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage + C-rings
Function= support against collapse; continue to warm, moisten, and filter air.
Organs of the respiratory system
Bronchial tree (witching lungs) Primary bronchus leads into each lung and then branches into secondary bronchi, which branch to each lobe and then branch into tertiary bronchi which each serve one of the 10 lobules ( bronchopulmonary segment) that divide into bronchioles which branch several times into tubes called terminal bronchioles .
Organs of the respiratory system
Lungs
Location: thoracic cavity
Urinary system consists of
Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra
Location of kidneys
The kidneys which are positioned retroperitoneally lie on either side of the vertebral column, high on the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity
Functions of the kidneys
- removal of metabolic wastes from the blood and excretion to the outside of the body
- regulation of red blood cell production, blood pressure, calcium ion absorption, and the volume, composition, and pH of the blood
Urine composition
about 95% water
- usually contains urea, uric acid, and creatinine
- may contain trace amounts of amino acids and varying amounts of electrolytes
- volume varies with fluid intake and environmental factors
Elimination of Urine
nephrons • collecting ducts • renal papillae • minor and major calyces • renal pelvis • ureters • urinary bladder • urethra • outside
Ureters
25 cm long • extend downward posterior to the parietal peritoneum • parallel to vertebral column • in pelvic cavity, join urinary bladder • wall of ureter • mucous coat • muscular coat • fibrous coat
Urinary Bladder
hollow, distensible, muscular organ located within the pelvic cavity, posterior to the symphysis pubis and inferior to the parietal peritoneum
Urethra
tube that conveys urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body
The nervous system (neurology)
Neurology
THERE ARE TWO DIVISIONS TO THE BODY’S NERVOUS SYSTEM:
Central Nervous System and peripheral nervous system
Brain
is the largest and most complex part. It has three parts: the cerebrum (largest part; “gray matter”), the cerebellum (posterior, inferior to the cerebrum, smaller portion), and the brain stem (comprised of—from top to bottom—the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata).
▪ The brainstem connects the brain and the spinal cord.
How many nerves in the cranial ?
12
The spinal cord has
31 segments and, thus, 31 pairs of nerves.
Brain
Remember brain purge is creamy, white and/or pink when tinged with blood.
he brain has spaces, called
Ventricles
ventricles
that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The 1st and 2nd ventricles are in each cerebral hemisphere. The 3rd ventricle is anterior to the cerebellum. The 4th ventricle is located at most inferior portion of the cerebellum.
Meniges
cover the entire brain and brain stem. It is composed of three layers: the dura mater (most superficial layer, very “dura”ble or tough); the arachnoid mater (looks like a web, blood supply source); and the pia mater (similar to saran wrap, deepest layer).
Sulci
plural of sulcus) are the lines in the gray matter of the brain. Gyri (plural of gyrus) or convolutions are the mounds or bumps of the gray matter.
▪ The longitudinal fissure separates the hemispheres of the brain.
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
The lymphatic system is strongly correlated to immunity—going all the way back to chapter three with lymphocytes (monocytes) being agranular and “eating” disease in the body. The system distributes white blood cells to fight infection.
Lymph nodes/glands are located in the following areas of note:
CERVICAL: neck
o AXILLARY: under arms
o THORACIC: thoracic cage
o INGUINAL: Groin
Organs of the lymphatic system include:
o TONSILS (didn’t really discuss)
o SPLEEN: Largest organ of the lymphatic system; shaped like a tongue. Inferior/posterior to the stomach. Due to the amount of infection it holds, it could be toxic if it ruptures.
o THYMUS: This is where white blood cells originate (t-lymphocytes). Sits on top of the heart. The thymus is larger in infancy because infants have no exposure/immunity to anything. It is much smaller as you age/develop immunity.
cistern chyli
is important to remember as the central location or the distribution center of the lymphatic system.
Characteristics of the central nervous system
- consists of the brain and the spinal cord
- brain is the largest and most complex portion
- brain stem connects the brain and the spinal cord
The brain
Also known as encephalon
Division of the brain
Cerebrum-largest part of the brain
Cerebellum- posterior , smaller portion of the brain. Posterior and inferior to the cerebrum
Brain stem- composed of the midbrain pons, and medulla oblongata. All attach the brain to the spinal cord.
Divisions of the brain ventricles
Four cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Meninges
Composed of three layers
Dura mater- outermost layer
Arachnoid mater- middle layer
Pita mater- innermost layer
Cerebrospinal fluid
Completely surrounds brain and spinal cord
Spinal cord
Two functions:
Center for spinal reflexes
Sends nerve impulses to and from the brain
Has 31 segments and each gives rise to a pair of spinal nerves
Peripheral nervous system
Consists of the nerves that branch from the CNS
Endocrine glands
Secrete substances into the internal environment, hormones secreted into the bloodstream.
Exocrine glands
Substances secreted into surrounding cells and act as “messengers” to the surface of the skin
Paracrine glands
Substances secreted into surrounding cells and act as “messengers” to stimulate the activity of those cells
Location/Function of the following Endocrine Glands
Pituitary - brain
Thyroid- throat
Parathyroid- throat
Suprarenals (adrenals)- superior to the kidneys.
Gonads- reproductive organs
Pancreatic islet (Lesley’s of Langerhans)- pancreas
lymphatic system
Functions of the lymphatic system
- transportation of interstitial fluids
- fight infection
Lymphatic system
Accurately locate the following: Lymph vessels Cisterns chyli Thoracic ducts Right lymphatic duct
The lymphatic system (structures)
Lymph nodes Lymph organs Tonsils Spleen Thymus
KIDNEYS
produce urine, regulate blood pressure, and rid body of toxins. The smallest unit within the kidney is the nephron.
URETERS
transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder
URINARY BLADDER
a hollow organ with the ability to distend that is responsible for the storage of urine until release. Lined with smooth muscle.
URETHRA
transports urine from the urinary bladder to the outside. The urethra is longer in men than in women.
transports urine from the urinary bladder to the outside. The urethra is longer in men than in women.
takes blood from the kidney back to the heart while the renal artery brings oxygenated blood from the heart to the kidney.
urea
The buildup of urea (which forms uric acid) in the tissues can lead to urine-like smell.
Urine has an excessive amount of nitrogenous waste material, especially ammonia. Ammonia neutralizes the effect of formaldehyde, thus it may be necessary to use an arterial solution that may have a higher index (strength) in a case that has had kidney complications to counteract the nitrogenous bases.
Urine has an excessive amount of nitrogenous waste material, especially ammonia. Ammonia neutralizes the effect of formaldehyde, thus it may be necessary to use an arterial solution that may have a higher index (strength) in a case that has had kidney complications to counteract the nitrogenous bases.
The formation of kidney stones is called nephrolithiasis, while kidney stones are known as nephroliths.
The formation of kidney stones is called nephrolithiasis, while kidney stones are known as nephroliths.
The Endocrine System
The endocrine system is responsible for secreting hormones. Hormones are chemicals that are released either into the bloodstream or to the outside of the body and are designed to carry out a particular function.
The endocrine system consists of
▪ Endocrine glands/organs – secrete directly into the bloodstream
▪ Exocrine glands/organs – secrete to outside of the body (sweat glands, sebaceous (oil) glands
▪ Heterocrine glands/organs – perform both endocrine and exocrine functions ie. the pancreas
▪ Autocrine glands – secrete hormones to activate themselves to perform specific function
▪ Paracrine glands – secrete to target cells which will in turn carry out specific functions
Endocrine glands/organs
secrete directly into the bloodstream
Exocrine glands/organs –
secrete to outside of the body (sweat glands, sebaceous (oil) glands
Heterocrine glands/organs
perform both endocrine and exocrine functions ie. the pancreas
Autocrine glands
secrete hormones to activate themselves to perform specific function
Paracrine glands
secrete to target cells which will in turn carry out specific functions
The brain is also known as the
encephalon
The largest hemispheres of the brain are called the
cerebrum
The smaller portion of the brain that is posterior and inferior to the cerebrum is the
Cerebellum
The brainstem
5) connects the brain to the spinal cord (8). The three parts of the brainstem are the midbrain (A), pons (B), and medulla oblongata (C)
ventricles
3) are spaces is the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
pituitary gland
4) sits at the base of the brain
The lines visible on the brain are called
sulci (2) (sulcus, singular) and the “bumps/humps” created by the lines are called gyri (1) (gyrus, singular) and can also be referred to as convolutions.
The Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system works in conjunction with our immune system to help fight infection
Organs within the lymphatic system include:
▪ Spleen (largest lymphatic organ) ▪ Lymph vessels ▪ Lymph nodes – the largest concentration located in the following: • Cervical (neck region) • Thoracic (chest) • Inguinal (groin) • Axillary (under the arm)
▪ Lymph
▪ Tonsils
▪ Thymus (located atop the heart and is larger during infancy than adulthood)
Origin
where the muscle is attached to a fixed point
Insertion
where the muscle is attached to a movable point
Belly
the fleshy portion of the muscle between the origin and insertion
Aponeurosis
attach muscles to other muscles
Muscles are named according to the following:
Action – levator palpebrae superioris
•Number of heads/divisions of attachment– triceps brachii
•Location – temporalis
•Shape – trapezius
•Origin and insertion – occipitofrontalis
•Size – gluteus maximus
•Direction of fibers – transverse abdominis
•Superficial/deep – external oblique/internal oblique
MUSCLE ACTIONS
Abduction
•Adduction
MUSCLE ACTIONS
Pronation
•Supination
•Inversion
•Eversion
Flexion •Extension •Hyperextension •Dorsiflexion •Plantar flexion
- Rotation
- Circumduction
MUSCLES OF FACIAL EXPRESSION
Occipitofrontalis (Epicranius) Orbicularis oculi Orbicularis oris Procerus Buccinator
MUSCLES OF THE CRANIUM
Occipitofrontalis/Epicranius (1)
•Named according to its origin and insertion/location (epicranius)
•Two broad bellies of muscle are connected by an aponeurosis – galea aponeurotica
•Occipitalis – draws scalp backward
•Frontalis – when contracted, raises the eyebrows
MUSCLES OF THE MOUTH
Orbicularis oris
•Round muscle that encircles the
•Contraction closes the lips
MUSCLES OF THE MOUTH (CON’T)
Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi
•Levator labii superioris
•Zygomaticus minor
•Zygomaticus major
•Contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the mouth in a superior direction
•Also known as “the laughing muscle” because when contracted for long periods, the muscle can begin to ache
Zygomaticus minor
Contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the mouth in a superior direction
•Also known as “the laughing muscle” because when contracted for long periods, the muscle can begin to ache
MUSCLES OF THE MOUTH (CON’T)
Buccinator
•Also known as “the trumpeter’s muscle”
•Located in the soft area of the cheek
MUSCLES OF THE NECK
Platysma
•Broad, flat, and superficial
•Upon contraction, lowers the jaw
•Creates transverse furrows; platysmal sulci
Sternocleidomastoideus
•Measure the widest part of the neck
•Origin – the sternum and the clavicle
•Insertion – the lateral surface of the mastoid process
•Upon contraction, pulls the head sideways
MUSCLES OF MASTICATION
Temporalis
Masseter
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE PECTORAL GIRDLE
Levator scapulae
Trapezius
Pectoralis minor
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE FOOT
Tibialis anterior Tibialis posterior Fibularus longus Gastrocnemius Soleus Plantaris
MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMINAL WALL
- External oblique
- Named according to being closer to the surface and the direction of the fibers
- Internal oblique
- Named according to being closer to the surface and the direction of the fibers
- Transverse abdominis
- Named according to being closer to the surface and the direction of the fibers
- Rectus abdominis
- Named according to location
- Linea alba
- Dense connective tissue that separates the rectal sheath
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE HAND
Flexor carpi ulnaris •Named according to action •Flexor carpi radialis •Named according to action •Extensor digitorum •Named according to action
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE FOREARM
Brachioradialis •Named according to origin and insertion •Brachialis •Named according to location •Biceps brachii •Named according to divisions of attachement •Triceps brachii •Named according to divisions of attachement
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ARM
Coracobracialis •Deltoid •Named according to shape •Infraspinatus •Named according to location •Supraspinatus •Named according to location •Subscapularis •Named according to location •Pectoralis major •Broad, flat muscle of the chest that adducts the arm when contracted
MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE FOOT
Tibialis anterior •Named according to location •Tibialis posterior •Named according to location •Fibularus longus •Named according to location •Gastrocnemius •Calf muscle; two divisions of attachment •Soleus •Feather shaped muscle
What are the respiration : Five Parts
Pulmonary ventilation, external reparation, transport of respiratory gases, internal respiratory, cellular respiration
pulmonary ventilation
Breathing
External respiration
Air into lungs; gas exchange (o2load/co2 unload); air out
Transports of respiratory gases
Gases in blood transported from lungs to body cells and back to lungs
Internal respiration
Exchange of gases at body capillaries ( o2 unload/co2 load)
Cellular respiration
Used of oxygen by cells to produce energy
Respiratory system consists of the following events
- ventilation
- external respiration
- transport
- internal respiration
- cellular respiration
Respiration
is the process of exchanging gases between the atmosphere and body cells.
Alveoli
gas exchanges between the air and blood occur within the alveoli
• alveolar pores allow air to pass from one alveolus to another
Breathing Mechanism
Breathing or ventilation is the movement of air from outside the body into the bronchial tree and alveoli
• air movements of inspiration and expiration
• changes in the size of the thoracic cavity due to changes in pressure
Sinuses
Air-filled spaces in maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones
Nose
Part of face centered above the mouth and inferior
to the space between the eyes
Nostrils provide entrance to nasal cavity; internal hairs begin to
filter incoming air
Nasal cavity
Hollow space behind nose
Conducts air to pharynx; mucous lining filters, warms, and
moistens incoming air
Sinuses
Hollow spaces in various bones of the skull
Reduce weight of the skull; serve as resonant chambers
Pharynx
Chamber posterior to the oral cavity and between
the nasal cavity and larynx
Passageway for air moving from nasal cavity to larynx and for food
moving from oral cavity to esophagus
Larynx
Enlargement at the top of the trachea
Passageway for air; prevents foreign objects from entering tra-
chea: houses vocal cords
Trachea
Flexible tube that connects larynx with bronchial tree
Passageway for air; mucous lining continues to filter air
Bronchial tree
Branched tubes that lead from the trachea to the
aveol
Conducts air to the alveoli; mucous lining continues to filter
incoming air
Lungs
Soft, cone-shaped organs that occupy a large portion of the thoracic cavity
Contain the air passages, alveoli, blood vessels, connective tissues, lymphatic vessels, and nerves or the lower respiratory tract
