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FNS121 > FNS 121 Final Exam > Flashcards

FNS 121 Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

ANATOMY

A

examines the structures of the body.

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2
Q

PHYSIOLOGY

A

considers the function of the structures.

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3
Q

CELL THEORY:

A
  1. All living things are made up of cells.
  2. Cells are the basic unit of structure/function.
  3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
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4
Q

What are the levels of organization ?

A

Cell, tissue , organ, organ system , organism

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5
Q

Cell

A

white blood cells (leukocyte), nerve cells, muscle cells, red blood cells (erythrocyte), neurons

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6
Q

Tissue

A
  1. epithelial-covering/lining, 2. connective-support, 3. muscular-movement, 4. nervous-control
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7
Q

ORGAN

A

skin, heart, kidney, lungs, gallbladder, spleen

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8
Q

ORGAN SYSTEM:

A

respiratory, digestive, endocrine, skeletal, circulatory

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9
Q

ORGANISM

A

human, wildebeest, bacteria, euglena, plants *NOT viruses

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10
Q

CHARACTERISTICS OF A LIVING THING:

A
  1. MOVE: willful change in body position; function of internal organs
  2. GROW: increase in body size w/o change in body shape
  3. REPRODUCE: produce new cells/organisms
  4. RESPONSIVENESS: react to external stimuli
  5. PERFORM CHEMICAL ACTIVITIES: digestion, excretion, respiration, absorption, circulation, assimilation
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11
Q

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM:

A
  1. ANIMAL: human, wildebeest, horse, swan, dolphin
  2. PLANT: tree, daffodil, mistletoe, pumpkin, dandelion
  3. FUNGI: mushroom, yeast, mold, rusts, mildews
  4. MONERA: single-cell organisms like bacterium, spirillum, bacillus, strep
  5. PROTISTA: single-cell organisms like amoeba, euglena, protozoa, some algae/molds
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12
Q

MEMBRANES:

  1. VISCERAL [ORGAN]: covers a vital organ, ex. visceral pleura or visceral pericardium
  2. PARIETAL [WALL/CAVITY]: lines a cavity, ex. parietal pleura or parietal pericardium
  3. SEROUS FLUID: present in all cavities (name remains unchanged)
A

MEMBRANES:

  1. VISCERAL [ORGAN]: covers a vital organ, ex. visceral pleura or visceral pericardium
  2. PARIETAL [WALL/CAVITY]: lines a cavity, ex. parietal pleura or parietal pericardium
  3. SEROUS FLUID: present in all cavities (name remains unchanged)
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13
Q

MIDSAGITTAL

A

vertical plane that divides the body equally into right/left portions

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14
Q

CORONAL

A

frontal plane that divides the body into anterior/posterior portions

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15
Q

TRANSVERSE

A

horizontal plane that divides the body into superior and inferior portions

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16
Q

OBLIQUE

A

diagonal plane dividing the body at an angle

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17
Q

SAGITTAL

A

vertical plane that divides the body into lateral right/left portions (not equal or median)

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18
Q

What are the four quadrants ?

A

Right upper quadrant
Right lower quadrant
Left upper quadrant
Left lower quadrant

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19
Q

What’s are the nine regions

A

1 & 3 right/left hypochondriac, 2 epigastric, 4 & 6 right/left lumbar, 5 umbilical, 7 & 9 right/left iliac/inguinal, and 8 hypogastric; start with labeling anatomical right/left; region #5 is umbilical

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20
Q

SUPERIOR

A

above another part

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21
Q

INFERIOR

A

below another part

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22
Q

ANTERIOR

A

ventral) towards front

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23
Q

POSTERIOR

A

dorsal) towards back

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24
Q

MEDIAL

A

midline of the body; middle

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25
Q

LATERAL

A

towards the side; away from mid-line/median

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26
Q

PROXIMAL

A

part closer to the point of attachment/trunk than another part (as a point of reference)

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27
Q

DISTAL

A

part further from the point of attachment/trunk than another part (as a point of reference)

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28
Q

SUPERFICIAL

A

near the surface

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29
Q

DEEP

A

more internal; away from the surface

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30
Q

The four quadrant body plan

A

Imaginary line created on the abdomen of the deceased

Helps to locate underlying viscera

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31
Q

Gross anatomy

A

the study of form and function of an organism which can be done without the aid of a microscope.

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32
Q

Histology

A

The study of tissues

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33
Q

Systemic

A

Throughout the entire system of the organism

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34
Q

Regional

A

Only specific to a localized area

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35
Q

Pathological

A

The study of diseased cells/tissues/etc

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36
Q

Topographical

A

Surface references to locate deeper lying structures.

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37
Q

Physiological

A

The study of function of an organism

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38
Q

Body plan

A 
Vertebral column 
7 cervical vertiebrae
12 thoracic vertebrae
5 lumbar vertebrae
5 sacral
1 coccyx
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39
Q

Body Cavities

A 
Cranial cavity
Spinal cavity
Ventral cavity
-thoracic cavity
-abdominal cavity
-abdmoninopelvic cavity
-pelvic cavity
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40
Q

Cranial

A

Brain

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41
Q

Spinal

A

Spinal cord

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42
Q

Ventral

A

Thoracic

-lungs, mediastinum, thymus, heart, esophagus, trachea

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43
Q

Abdominopelvic

A

Abdominal

-stomach, liver, spleen, gall bladder, small intestine, large intestine

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44
Q

Pelvic

A

Urinary bladder , internal reproductive organs

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45
Q

Body region

A 
Head 
-Cranium 
-Face 
Neck (cervical)
Trunk (torso)
-thorax
-Abdomen
-Pelvis
Upper extremities
Lower extremities
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46
Q

Body Regions

A

Axial Skeleton

Considered the ‘body proper” Head, neck, and abdominal area

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47
Q

Appendicular Skeleton

A

Consists of : upper extremities and lower extremities

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48
Q

Four basic tissues

A

Epithelial (covering/lining)
Connective (support)
Muscular (movement)
Nervous (control)

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49
Q

Visceral membrane

A

Covers a vital organ

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50
Q

Parietal membrane

A

Lines a body cavity

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51
Q

Serous fluid

A

Between membranes for lubrication

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52
Q

Visceral pleura

A

Surface of the lungs

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53
Q

Parietal pleura

A

Lines the cavity of the lungs

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54
Q

Pleural cavity

A

Filled with serous fluid

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55
Q

Visceral pericardium

A

Surface of the heart

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56
Q

Parietal pericardium

A

Lines the cavity of the heart

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57
Q

Pericardial cavity

A

Filled with serous fluid

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58
Q

Visceral peritoneum

A

Surface of the liver, stomach, etc

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59
Q

Parietal peritomeum

A

Lines the cavity of the abdomen

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60
Q

Peritoneal cavity

A

Filled with serous fluid

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61
Q

ORGANELLE

A

Tiny organ

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62
Q

NUCLEUS

A

The brain;” largest part of cell;

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63
Q

MITOCHONDRIA

A

Energy source

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64
Q

RIBOSOMES

A

Make proteins

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65
Q

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SMOOTH

A

Provides transport-no proteins; L/S (look like roads off of nucleus)

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66
Q

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ROUGH)

A

Provides transport-WITH proteins; L/S (look like roads off of nucleus with ribosomes/dots on them)

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67
Q

LYSOSOMES

A

Help digest waste/worn cell parts

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68
Q

LYSOSOMES

A

enzymes speed reaction of excretion

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69
Q

NUCLEOLUS

A

Contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA (ribonucleic) acid of cell; R/S-small circle inside the nucleus

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70
Q

CELL MEMBRANE:

A

Outer wall of cell

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71
Q

GOLGI APPARATUS (COMPLEX):

A

The packaging site of cell (performs similar function as colon does for human body); looks like a “stack of pancakes” above the nucleus

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72
Q

CYTOPLASM

A

Clear gel-like substance that all organelles are suspended in

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73
Q

VACUOLE

A

Storage site or ‘pantry’ of the cell;

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74
Q

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE/MEMBRANE:

A

The membrane around the cell nucleus that regulates what comes in/out;

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75
Q

CILIA

A

Short, hair-like projections used for movement

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76
Q

FLAGELLA

A

Long whip-like tails for movement; sing. = flagellum

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77
Q

PSUEDOPDODIA

A

False feet;” cells used cytoplasmic streaming to propel themselves (ex. amoeba)

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78
Q

GOLGI VESICLE

A

packets of unwanted waste/material that will travel to membrane to be released; L/S blank under vacuole; represented by small dots next to Golgi apparatus

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79
Q

PINOCYTOIC VESICLE

A

place in cell membrane that allows waste to pass out

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80
Q

CENTRIOLES

A

look like flowers; important in the cell cycle/mitosis

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81
Q

CELL MEMBRANE:

A

First line of defense; protects cell from the environment; maintains the integrity of the cell; “selectively permeable” in that it regulates what comes in/out of cell

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82
Q

NUCLEUS:

A

The brain;” controls all metabolic function of the cell

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83
Q

CYTOPLASM:

A

comprised of a clear gel-like substance (cytosol) that holds all of the organelles of the cell; keeps the cell vital and functioning

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84
Q

Animal cells

A

Round or ovoid in structure

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85
Q

Plant cells

A

Square or rectangular ; also have cell walls in addition to cell membranes

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86
Q

HYPOTONIC

A

A hypotonic solution has lower osmotic pressure meaning more water can enter the cell than can exit; the membrane of the cell can rupture and the cell die (ex. water balloon) *she called this plasmoptysis in class; book says they hemolyze

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87
Q

HYPERTONIC

A

: A hypertonic solution has higher osmotic pressure meaning that more water will exit the cell than can enter; the cell shrinks and can die (ex. grape to raisin) *she called this plasmolysis

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88
Q

ISOTONIC

A

The ideal solution for cells; equal passage of water in/out resulting in no change for the cells; an isotonic solution has the same osmotic pressure as body fluids

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89
Q

DIFFUSION

A

The movement of atoms/molecules/ions to move from area of higher concentration to area of lower concentration (ex. perfume)

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90
Q

OSMOSIS

A

The diffusion of water molecules across membranes; specific only to water

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91
Q

FILTRATION

A

The separation of solids from fluids (blood pressure forces filtration through capillaries)

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92
Q

MITOSIS

A

Cell division of somatic (normal body) cells; DOES NOT include sex or gamete cells; 4 main stages (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase)

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93
Q

MEIOSIS

A

The means in which sex cells or gametes reproduce

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94
Q

The cell life cycle

A

Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telephase, apoptosis

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95
Q

INTERPHASE

A

we added the drawing of a basic cell with nucleus; this is the state in which a cell spends most of its time growing and preparing for mitosis

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96
Q

PROPHASE

A

chromosomes are becoming visible; nuclear membrane disappears; centrioles appear/become visible; spindle fibers (long) and aster rays (short) appear

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97
Q

METAPHASE

A

centrioles move to opposite sides/poles of the cell; chromosomes move to the middle of the cell; spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes

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98
Q

ANAPHASE

A

chromosomes pulled apart and moved to opposite poles/sides of the cell by the spindle fibers; the cell elongates in preparation to divide (looks more ovoid)

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99
Q

TELEPHASE

A

cleavage furrow appears; spindle fibers disappear; cytoplasm disappears so cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm) can occur; nuclear membrane reappears as part of karyokinesis (division of nucleus); end up with two identical daughter cells that are identical to the original cell

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100
Q

APOPTOSIS

A

Cell death also called “programmed cell death” since it is part of the normal development of the cell

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101
Q

Cell/plasma membrane

A

Selectively permeable

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102
Q

Nucleus

A

Controls all of the metabolic activity of the cell

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103
Q

Cytoplasm

A

Contains all of the organelles

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104
Q

Ribosomes

A

Responsible for synthesizing ( making) proteins

Can be found free-floating writhing the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum

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105
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum

A

Responsible for transporting proteins

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106
Q

Endoplasmic reticulum is called ____________ if it has ribosomes attached to it

A

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)

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107
Q

The endoplasmic reticulum is called _______________ if there are no ribosomes attached to it

A

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

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108
Q

Vesicles

A

Small sacs that transport material (particularly wastes material) throughout the cell
Can be found around the Golgi apparatus and sometimes the Rough endoplasmic Reticulum

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109
Q

Golgi Apparatus/Complex is responsible

A

For packaging up material that needs to be expelled from the cell

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110
Q

Vesicles around the Golgi will take waste material from the

A

Golgi and fuse with the cell membrane in order to rid the waste from the cell

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111
Q

Mitochondria

A

Are responsible for providing the cell with energy

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112
Q

Energy stored from mitochondria is stored as

A

Adenosine triphosphate

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113
Q

Lysosomes are

A

digesting worn out cell parts using enzymes

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114
Q

Nucleons contains what information >

A

Genetic information of the cell

DNA or RNA

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115
Q

Nuclear envelope is responsible for

A

regulating what materials can enter/exit the nucleus

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116
Q

Diffusion

A

The movement of molecules from and area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

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117
Q

Osmosis

A

The movement of water molecules from and area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

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118
Q

Hypertonic –

A

the amount of water exiting the cell is greater than the amount of water entering the cell.

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119
Q

Plasmolysis

A

Can occur , cell shrinks and dies

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120
Q

Isotonic

A

The amount of water entering the cell is equal to the amount of water exiting the cell .

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121
Q

Hypotonic

A

The amount of water entering the cell is greater than the amount of water exiting the cell .

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122
Q

Plasmoptysis

A

Can occur; cell swells, ruptures and dies.

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123
Q

Endocytosis

A

The process by which cells take in materials

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124
Q

Phagocytosis

A

The process in which cells take in solid matter

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125
Q

Pinocytosis

A

The process by which cells take in liquid matter

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126
Q

Exocytosis

A

The process by which cells expels material, whether it is a solid or a liquid.

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127
Q

Interphase

A 
Nucleus clearly defined
•Chromosomes not visible
•Cell is preparing for mitosis
•Mitosis – the cellular division of somatic cells
•Consists of four stages
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128
Q

Prophase

A

First stage of mitosis
•Chromosomes become long and thin
•Centrioles, aster rays, and spindle fibers appear during this stage
•The nuclear envelope is initial intact, but eventually disappears
•Toward the end of prophase, the chromosomes pair

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129
Q

Metaphase

A

Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
•Spindle fibers attach to each side of the chromosomes
•Centrioles and aster rays migrate to opposite poles of the cell

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130
Q

Anaphase

A

Chromosomes are pulled apart and migrate toward opposite poles of the cell
•Cell shape begins to elongate as two cells begin to develop

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131
Q

Telophase

A

Two daughter cells develop that are identical to the original parent cell
•Spindle fibers and aster rays disappear
•The nuclear envelop reforms
•Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) occurs
•Karyokinesis (division of the nucleus)occurs

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132
Q

HISTOLOGY

A

is the study of tissues; there are FOUR types of tissue: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous

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133
Q

EPITHELIAL TISSUE

A

covers the body

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134
Q

LAYERS

A

Layers start at the BASEMENT MEMBRANE (which has a basal layer-top and a reticular fiber layer-bottom) which is the point of attachment for cells.

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135
Q

Simple

A

Only one layer of cells; all cells touch the basement membrane (check nuclei)

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136
Q

Stratified

A

More than one layers of cells; not all cells touch the basement layer

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137
Q

Psuedostratified

A

Falsely” layered; all cells touch the basement membrane (check nuclei)

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138
Q

SHAPE

A

Squamous, cubiodal, columnar, transitional

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139
Q

Squamous:

A

Flat; look like “fried eggs” along basement membrane

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140
Q

Cuboidal:

A

Cube-shaped along basement membrane

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141
Q

Columnar:

A

Column or rectangular looking along basement membrane

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142
Q

Transitional

A

Change shape up layers; understood it’s stratified so label it “transitional E.T.”

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143
Q

CONNECTIVE TISSUE:

A

ADIPOSE (fat tissue) is most important to funeral student due to water content; we also discussed cartilage, bone, and blood.

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144
Q

ADIOPOCYTES

A

Fat cells; so full of water that water pushes or flattens nucleus of cell to the side; this water produces a “secondary dilution” of arterial fluid in embalming process and could require a higher strength or concentration (index number) of embalming solute/solution; remember her drawing on the board and discussion regarding embalming a 300lb body vs. a 98lb body

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145
Q

CARTILAGE

A

Listed from most flexible (least visible muscle fibers) to least flexible (most visible muscle fibers/dense matrix).

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146
Q

Hyaline

A

Very flexible; ex. ribs in thoracic cavity or tip of nose

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147
Q

Elastic

A

Medium flexibility; ex. external parts of ear (inner rim)

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148
Q

Fibrocartilage

A

Least flexible; ex. pubic symphysis or joints (book says it acts as a “shock absorber”)

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149
Q

Epiphysis

A

Ends of long bone (such as femur)

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150
Q

Diaphysis

A

Shaft of long bone (such as femur)

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151
Q

Spongy or cancellous bone

A

The end of long bone where red blood cells are made via hematopoesis

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152
Q

Compact bone:

A

Outer edge of long bones; contains Osteons
▪ The second diagram on page one of the handout deals with Osteons or compact bone, and she used an analogy to help remember parts: osteons look like tree ring/neighborhoodss and contain osteocytes (bone cells)/homes that are black dashes; lacunas/yards are the space around osteocytes/homes; osteocytes/homes are on lamellas (the space between concentric rings of osteons)/streets; canaliculi (cytoplasmic projections)/phone lines provide communication between osteocytes/homes; and the Haversian or central canal acts as the power source for the osteon/neighborhood.

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153
Q

Erythrocytes

A

Red blood cells; have NO nuclei and are bi-concave shaped; transport oxygen in the blood; most predominant cell seen in diagram

154
Q

Leukocytes

A

White blood cells; fight infection in the body

155
Q

Leukocytes

A

White blood cells; fight infection in the body
▪ Granulocytes: Can see the odd-shaped nuclei and granules inside cell (three types are eosinophil, basophil, and neutrophil)
▪ Agranulocytes: Generally very large with a large singular nucleus (two types are lymphocyte and monocyte)

156
Q

Thrombocytes

A

Platelets; cytoplasmic fragments that help blood coagulate/clot

157
Q

MUSCULE TISSUE

A

There are three types of muscle tissue in the body (skeletal, smooth, and cardiac). They can be identified by 4 characteristics: striation (lines in tissue), voluntary vs. involuntary movement, how many nuclei are present, and whether tissue branches or not.

158
Q

SKELETAL MUSCLE

A

Attached to points on the skeleton, this is muscle that can be moved at will or voluntarily; it is striated; has multiple nuclei; and is unbranched

159
Q

SMOOTH MUSCLE

A

Muscle that line the majority of our hollow internal organs; cannot be moved at will so is involuntary; no striations/non-striated; mono-nucleated; unbranched

160
Q

CARDIAC MUSCLE

A

Muscle found only in the heart; involuntary; striated; mono-nucleated; branched; also has intercalated discs

161
Q

Nervous Tissue

A
  • NEURON: Nerve cell
  • Soma: Cell body of a neuron
  • Nucleus: Center of soma; takes and sends impulses
  • Axon: Takes impulses away from soma (A=axon, A=away); long tail coming off soma
  • Axon Hillock: Region where soma and axon meet
  • Dendrites: Delivers impulses to the soma (D=dendrite, D=deliver); all along body of soma
  • Neurolinglial Cells: Small dots surrounding soma that nourish the Central Nervous System (CNS)
162
Q

What are four tissues ?

A

Epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous

163
Q

Hyaline Cartilage

A

Most flexible

164
Q

Elastic cartilage

A

Moderately flexible

165
Q

Fibrocartilage

A

Least flexible

166
Q

Skeletal muscle

A 
Voluntary
•Striated
•Multinucleated
•Unbranched
•Attached to the skeleton
167
Q

Cardiac muscle

A 
Involuntary
•Striated
•Mononucleated  
•Branched
•Intercalated discs separated each cardiac muscle cell
168
Q

Smooth muscle

A

Involuntary
•Non-striated
•Mononucleated
•Unbranched

169
Q

Neuron

A

A nerve cell

170
Q

Parts of the neuron

A 
Axon
•Dendrite
•Soma
•Axon hillock
•Neuroglial cells
171
Q

Muscles that move neck/head

A

Sternocleidomastoid

172
Q

STERNOCLEIDOMASTOID

A

Creates widest portion of the neck; Anatomical guide for finding the carotid artery for arterial embalming; named for origin/insertion: origin—sternum and upper surface of clavicle, insertion—mastoid process

173
Q

MUSCLES OF MASTICATION/CHEWING

A

MASSETOR: Thick, flat quadrilateral muscle that raises and lowers jaw; origin—lower border of zygomatic arch, insertion—lateral surface of the mandible
• TEMPORALIS: The largest and strongest muscle of mastication; fan-shaped and located above the ear; named for location: located over temporal bone

174
Q

Muscles that move that pectoral girdle

A

Trapezius, lavatory scapulae, pectoral is minor

175
Q

TRAPEZIUS:

A

Raises the bones of the pectoral girdle (clavicles and scapulae); origin—occipital bone/cervical and thoracic vertebrae, insertion—clavicle/spine/scapula; named for its shape: it’s a trapezoid

176
Q

LEVATOR SCAPULAE

A

Named for its function: it raises the scapula; origin—cervical vertebrae, insertion—medial margin of scapula

177
Q

PECTORALIS MINOR

A

Thin flat muscle that assists the pectoralis major (which moves the arm); raises ribs and pulls scapula forward and downward

178
Q

Muscles that move the arm

A

Coracobrachialis , perctorialis major, latissimus Dorsi, deltoid, subscaplaris, infraspinatus, supraspinatus

179
Q

CORACOBRACHIALIS

A

Flexes and adducts arm; origin—scapula, insertion—shaft of humerus

180
Q

PECTORALIS MAJOR:

A

Flexes, adducts, and rotates arm; origin—clavicle/sternum/ribs, insertion—humerus

181
Q

LATISSIMUS DORSI:

A

Wings of the back;” named for location: on the dorsal side of the body; Mr. Jones (and swimmers) have nice definition in these muscles

182
Q

DELTOID

A

Flexes, adducts, and extends arm; located at top of arm/shoulder; named for its shape: it’s a triangle

183
Q

SUBSCAPULARIS

A

Rotates arm medially; named for location: located on the underside of scapula

184
Q

INFRASPINATUS

A

Rotates arm laterally; named for location: located below the spine of scapula

185
Q

SUPRASPINATUS

A

Rotates arm laterally; named for location: located above the spine of scapula

186
Q

Muscles that move the forearm

A

Biceps brachii, brachialis , brachioradialis, triceps brachii

187
Q

BICEPS BRACHII

A

Rotates arm laterally and flexes elbow; named for divisions of attachment: two heads/bellies

188
Q

BRACHIALIS

A

Flexes elbow; named for location: located next to brachial vessel; origin—anterior shaft of humerus, insertion—ulna

189
Q

BRACHIORADIALIS

A

Flexes elbow; Flexes elbow; named for location: located next to radius; origin—distal lateral end of humerus, insertion—lateral surface of radius

190
Q

TRICEPS BRACHII:

A

Extends elbow; named for divisions of attachment: three heads/bellies

191
Q

Muscles that move the hand

A

Flexor carpi radialis, flexor Carib ulnar is, extensor digitorum

192
Q

FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS:

A

Reduce angle of wrist on thumb side (flexes wrist/abducts hand); its name gives away location and function (literally flexes carpals along radius)

193
Q

FLEXOR CARPI ULNARIS:

A

Reduce angle of wrist on pinky side (flexes wrist/abducts hand); its name gives away location and function (literally flexes carpals along ulna)

194
Q

EXTENSOR DIGITORUM:

A

Extends fingers; its name gives away function (literally extends digits)

195
Q

Muscles of the abdominal wall

A

External obique, internal oblique, transverse abdominis, recuts add ominous, linea alba

196
Q

EXTERNAL OBLIQUE

A

Most superficial oblique muscle of abdomen; origin—lower ribs, insertion—iliac crest/linea alba; named for depth/ direction of fibers: external and oblique (diagonal)

197
Q

INTERNAL OBLIQUE:

A

Runs deep to the external oblique muscle of abdomen; origin—crest of ilium/inguinal ligament, insertion—cartilage of lower ribs/linea alba/pubis; named for depth/direction of fibers: internal and oblique (diagonal)

198
Q

TRANSVERSE ABDOMINIS:

A

Deepest layer of abdominal muscle; origin—costal cartilage of lower ribs/lumbar vertebrae/iliac crest/inguinal ligament, insertion—linea alba/crest of pubis; named for direction of fibers/location: transverse (horizontal) and abdomen

199
Q

RECTUS ABDOMINUS:

A

Six pack” muscles; long strap-like muscles; origin—pubis, insertion—xiphoid process and costal cartilages; can compress abdomen and flex vertebrae

200
Q

LINEA ALBA:

A

The aponeurosis that connects rectus abdominus; most medial aponeurosis of body

201
Q

Muscles that move the thigh (7)

A

PSOAS MAJOR: [So-Es] anatomical landmark for finding the external iliac artery for arterial embalming (especially important in post-mort cases or if arterial system is compromised); origin—lumbar vertebrae, insertion—femur
• GLUTEUS MAXIMUS: Largest and strongest muscle in the body; named for size: it’s big
• GLUTEUS MINIMUS: Assists the gluteus maximus; named for size: it’s not big
• ADDUCTOR BREVIS: Part of femoral triangle; named for function: adducts thigh; brevis means short
• ADDUCTOR LONGUS: Part of femoral triangle; anatomical landmark for finding the femoral artery; named for function: adducts thigh; longus means long
• ADDUCTOR MAGNUS: Part of femoral triangle; named for function: adducts thigh; magnus means large
• GRACILIS: Most medial muscle along inside of thigh

202
Q

Muscles that move the leg (7total02 groups, 1 lone muscle) 4 front , 3 back, 1 strap .

A

SARTORIS: Strap-like muscle that crosses thigh from hip (lateral) to knee (medial) on anterior side of thigh

HAMSTRING GROUP: The posterior set of muscles along the back of thigh; generally flex and rotate knee.
• Biceps femoris: Named for divisions of attachment: two heads (biceps) along femur
• Semitendinosus: Runs along medial surface of tibia
• Semimembranosus: Runs along medial condyle of tibia

QUADRICEPS GROUP: The anterior set of muscles along the front of thigh; generally extend knee. CHICKEN LEG.
• Rectus femoris: Most anterior, superficial layer of muscle; like the first fleshy tear-drop of meat you bite off of a chicken leg
• Vastus lateralis: Lateral side of the anterior portion of the thigh
• Vastus medialis: Medial side of the anterior portion of the thigh
• Vastus intermedius: Runs in-between (intermedial) the lateral and medial muscles on anterior muscle group, UNDER the rectus femoris; like the last bit of meat you strip off a chicken leg bone

203
Q

Muscles that move the foot (6)

A

leg.
• TIBIALIAS ANTERIOR: Dorsiflexion (on heel) and inversion (toes inward) of foot; origin—tibia, insertion—tarsal; named for location: on anterior of tibia
• GASTROCNEMIUS: Plantar flexion (on toes) of foot and flexes knee; has a laterial and medial head; forms calf with soleus; origin—condyles of femur, insertion—posterior surface of calcaneus
• SOLEUS: Thick, fan-shaped muscle under gastrocnemis (forms calf with gastrocnemius); plantar flexion of foot; origin—head & shaft of fibula/posterior surface of tibia, insertion—posterior surface of calcaneous
• PLANTARIS: Long strap-like muscle between soleus and gastrocnemis; named for function: plants foot; origin—femur, insertion—calcaneus; posterior to knee
• TIBIALIS POSTERIOR: Plantar flexion and inversion of the foot; deepest of the muscles on the back of the leg (runs behind tibia); helps connect fibula and tibia to ankle bones
• FIBULARIS LONGUS: Long, strap-like muscle on lateral side of leg; runs alongside fibula and connects bones via a tendon that passes the lateral malleolus
4

204
Q

Arthrology

A

The Study of Joints

205
Q

A joint

A

is an articulation (union) or two or more bones.

206
Q

Immovable joints

A

Sutures are only between flat bones of the skull where the broad margins of adjacent bones grow together and unite by a thin layer of dense connective tissue called a sutural ligament.

207
Q

Slightly movable joints

A

Only limited movement is possible.

●Example - pubic symphysis and the sacro-iliac articulation

208
Q

Freely movable joints

A

Synovial joints allow free movement and they are more complex structurally than fibrous or cartilaginous joints.
●Example - hip and shoulder(ball-and-socket), elbow and knee (hinge)

209
Q

Total bones in the body

A

206

210
Q

Function of the skeletal system

A 
Support and protection
●Movement
●Bone cell formation (hematopoiesis)
●Inorganic salt storage
●Energy storage
211
Q

Bone Structure

A

Bones are classified according to their shape:
●Long bones consist of a shaft with two ends – Ex: femur, humerus
●Short bones are cube-like – Ex: carpals, tarsals
●Flat bones are thin and usually curved – Ex: sternum, most skull bones
●Irregular bones are not long, short, or flat. Ex: vertebrae
●Sesamoid bones develop within a tendon. Ex: patella

212
Q

Axial (80 bones)

A 
Skull (22 bones and 6 ear ossicles)
●Hyoid (1 bone)
●Vertebrae (26 bones)
●Sternum (1 bone)
●Ribs (24 bones)
213
Q

Appendicular (126 bones)

A

Upper extremities and pectoral girdle (64 bones

●Lower extremities and pelvic girdle (62 bones)

214
Q

Frontal

A

Articulates:
●Along the coronal suture with the parietal bones
●Parts of the frontal bone include: supraorbital margins, superciliary arches, glabella, frontal eminences, frontal sinuses

215
Q

Parietal

A

Articulates:
●Anteriorly with frontal bones at the coronal suture
●Posteriorly with the occipital bone at the lambdoidal suture
●Laterally with temporal bones at squamous suture;
●Between bones at sagittal suture

216
Q

Occipital bone

A

Articulates:
●With paired parietal bones along the lambdoidal suture
●Contains the foramen magnum (“large hole”) and the external occipital protuberance
●Occipital condyles - rounded processes on either side of foramen magnum which articulate with the first vertebra (atlas)

217
Q

Temporal bones

A 
Articulates:
●Inferiorly to parietal bones at squamous suture (appropriately called the squamous portion)
●Petrous portion –
●Ear ossicles (6)
●Malleus (2)
●Incus (2)
●Stapes (2)
●Carotid canal
●Parts of the temporal bones:
●Zygomatic processes
●External auditory meatus
●Styloid processes
●Mastoid process
●Mandibular fossa
218
Q

Sphenoid bone (1)

A

Butterfly shaped bone; spans the floor of the cranium
●Contains
●Sphenoid sinuses
●Sella turcica (supports the pituitary gland)

219
Q

Ethmoid bone

A

Complex shape; on either side of the nasal cavity
●Contains
●Ethmoid sinuses
●Cribiform plate
●Perpendicular plate (forms superior portion of the nasal septum)
●Crista galli (serves as attachment for the meninges)

220
Q

Facial Bones (14)

A

Nasal bones (2)
●Form bridge of the nose
•Lacrimal bones (2)
●Median walls of orbit
•Zygomatic bones (2)
●Cheek bones; temporal process projects posteriorly and articulates with the zygomatic process of temporal bone
•Maxillary bones (maxilla) 2
●Upper jaw; contains the alveolar process and maxillary sinus
•Palatine process (2)
●Posterior portion of the hard palate; contains the maxillary process

221
Q

Facial Bones (con’t)

A 
Vomer (1)
●Inferior portion of the nasal septum
•Inferior nasal concha
•Mandible (1)
●Lower jaw; composed of
●Body
●Alveolar process
●Mental protuberance
●Angle
●Ramus
222
Q

Bones of the Axial Skeleton

A 
Hyoid bone
●In neck, between lower jaw and larynx    
●Supports tongue
•Veterbral column
●Cervical vertebrae #1 – atlas
●Cervical vertebrae #2 – axis
•Sternum
●Manubrium
●Body
●Xyphoid process
223
Q

Ribs

A

12 pair
●True ribs – upper 7
●False ribs – remaining 5
●Floating ribs – 11th and 12th pair (do not articulate anteriorly)

224
Q

Bones of the Upper Extremities and Pectoral Girdle

A 
Clavicle (2) – collar bone
•Scapula (2) – shoulder blade
•Humerus (2) – upper arm bone
•Radius (2) – forearm bone (thumb-side)
•Ulna (2) – forearm bone (pinky-side)
•Carpals (16) – wrist bones
•Metacarpals (10) – hand
•Phalanges (28) - fingers
225
Q

Bones of the Lower Extremities and Pelvic (hip) Girdle

A

Os coxa (2)
●Ilium: largest uppermost flaring portion
●Iliac crest – prominence of the hip; contains the acetabulum (articulates with the head of the femur); hole in each coxal bone is obturator foramen)
●Ischium: lowest, L-shaped portion
●Pubis: anterior portion
●Bladder rests upon it; articulates at the pubic symphsis
•Femur (2) – thigh
•Patella (2) – kneecap

226
Q

Bones of the Lower Extremities and Pelvic (hip) Girdle (con’t)

A

Tibia (2) – shin bone
●note the location of the medidal malleolus (bulge of the ankle)
•Fibula (2) – thin bone lateral to the tibia
●note the location of the lateral malleolus (lateral ankle bulge)
•Tarsals (14) – ankle bones
●Talus – articulates with the tibia and fibula
●Calcaneus – heel bone
•Metatarsals (10) – foot
•Phalanges (28) – toes

227
Q

PURPOSE OF SKELETON:

A

Support and protection
▪ Movement: in conjunction with muscles
▪ Bone cell formation: Hematopoiesis or formation of erythrocytes/red blood cells in “spongy bone” at the end of cancellous or long bones
▪ Inorganic salt storage: Na, Ca, K, Mg stored in diaphysis/compact bone
▪ Energy storage: Epiphyseal plate marks transition from compact bone to spongy bone where fat or “yellow marrow” is stored

228
Q

AXIAL SKELETON:

A

80 bones located in head, neck, torso

229
Q

APPENDICULAR SKELETON:

A

126 bones located in upper and lower extremities

230
Q

PECTORAL GIRDLE:

A

Superior (top) half; 64 bones

231
Q

PELVIC GIRDLE

A

Inferior (lower) half; 62 bones

232
Q

BONE CLASSIFICATIONS:

A

LONG BONES: Shaft with two ends (ex. humerus, femur)
o SHORT BONES: Cube like bones (ex. carpals in wrists, tarsals in ankle)
o FLAT BONES: Thin and usually curved (ex. sternum, ribs, cranial bones)
o IRREGULAR BONES: Not long, short, or flat (ex. vertebrae)
o SESAMOID or ROUND BONES: Small and nodular, embedded in tendons, and articulate with joints (ex. patella)

233
Q

ARTHROLOGY

A

The study of joints

234
Q

JOINT

A

An articulation (union) of two or more bones

235
Q

SUTURES

A

Immovable joint; between flat bones of the skull where the broad margins of adjacent bones grow together and unite by a thin layer of connective tissue called a sutural ligament; ex. five (5) cranial sutures or fontanels, which do not seal/harden until between ages 19-25

236
Q

Coronal suture

A

Posterior to the frontal bone; anterior to parietal bones

237
Q

Sagittal suture

A

Runs medial between parietal bones; anterior meets coronal suture/frontal bone; posterior meets lamboidal suture/occipital bone

238
Q

Squamous sutures (2

A

One on both the right and the left, separating the parietal bone and the temporal bone

239
Q

Lamboidal suture:

A

Posterior to the parietal bones; anterior to the occipital bone; perpendicular to the sagittal suture

240
Q

ATTACHMENTS/CONNECTIVE TISSUE:

A

Tendons: Attach muscle to bone
▪ Ligaments: Attach bone to bone, usually at a joint
▪ Aponeurosis: Attach muscle to muscle

241
Q

FORAMEN

A

Hole

242
Q

SINUS

A

Cavity in skull to reduce the weight of bone

243
Q

PROCESS

A

Projection (ex. mastoid process)

244
Q

MEATUS

A

Passageway (ex. external auditory meatus)

245
Q

FOSSA

A

Shallow depression (ex. mandibular fossa)

246
Q

CONDYLE

A

Rounded process at the end of a bone, usually at the articular end (ex. mandibular condyle)

247
Q

CRANIAL BONES:

A

Eight (8) in total; need to know all eight; all flat except sphenoid and ethmoid

248
Q

FRONTAL

A

Articulates at coronal suture anterior to the parietal bones

249
Q

FRONTAL

A

Supraorbital margins: Roof of the eye orbit
▪ Superciliary arches: Where your eyebrows would be
▪ Glabella: Space between eyes; superior to nasal bones
▪ Frontal eminences: Superior to eyebrows; part of forehead
▪ Frontal sinuses: Located above each eye at the midline; reduce weight of skull

250
Q

PARIETAL

A

Articulates anteriorly with the frontal bone at the coronal suture; posteriorly with the occipital bone at the lamboidal suture; laterally at the temporal bones at the squamous suture; between right/left at the sagittal suture

251
Q

OCCIPITAL

A

Articulates with paired parietal bones along the lamboidal suture; spans the floor of skull

Foramen magnum: “large hole;” where the inferior of brainstem connects to the spinal cord

252
Q

TEMPORAL

A

Articulates inferiorly to parietal bones at squamous suture (on right and left)

253
Q

TEMPORAL

A

Zygomatic processes: Projects anteriorly in region of external auditory meatus; joins temporal process/zygomatic bone to form prominence of cheek (zygomatic arch); height of cheekbones
▪ External auditory meatus: Near inferior of temporal bone; hole leads to interior of ear
▪ Styloid processes: Long, pointed projection on temporal bone; only portion of temporal bone unhelpful in restoration as it is to internal to be seen/felt
▪ Mastoid process: Rounded projection posterior to external ear where certain neck muscles attach
▪ Mandibular fossae: Depressions that articulate with the mandibular condyles

254
Q

SPHENOID

A

Butterfly or moth shaped bone in the anterior floor of the cranium; contains sinuses

255
Q

ETHMOID

A

Complex shaped bone located on either side of nasal cavity

256
Q

ETHMOID

A

Ethmoid sinuses: Reduce weight in skull
▪ Cribiform plate: Looks sponge-like because it has openings for sense of smell; this is region that is pierced during embalming process
▪ Perpendicular plate: Superior portion of the nasal septum
▪ Crista galli: (Cock’s comb) Triangular point along cribiform plate that is point of attachment for brain’s membranes

257
Q

FACIAL BONES: Fourteen (14) total

A

NASAL (2): Form bridge of the nose; one on each side; glabella is superior to nasal bones
o ZYGOMATIC (2): “Cheek bones” (or ‘apple’ of cheek); right and left
▪ Temporal process: Projects posteriorly and articulates with zygomatic process of temporal bone
o MAXILLARY (2): Upper jaw (right/left); meets at bottom of eye, forms sides and floor of nasal cavity, and holds upper teeth
o VOMER (1): Inferior portion of nasal septum (superior is the perpendicular plate); nose sits on top of vomer
o MANDIBLE (1): The single movable bone of the face; lower jaw bone; contains all lower teeth
▪ Body: The greater width of the mandible (includes mental foramen)
▪ Ramus: Vertical portion of the mandible
▪ Angle: The anterior corners of the mandible
▪ Mandibular condyle: Superior posterior of the ramus; articulates with the mandibular fossa
▪ Coronoid process: Superior anterior of the ramus; provides point of attachment for chewing muscles
▪ Alveolar process: Ridges that hold lower teeth in place (also called dental alveoli)

258
Q

HE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

• GENERAL FUNCTION:

A

Respiration which is the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and body cells. Ventilation means breathing and must be considered at the five organization levels and associated tasks.

259
Q

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

A

The organism takes a breath (inhales), which is ventilation.*
o The organ system (nose, mouth, lungs) uses external respiration to move the air into the lungs.*
o The organs (lungs) transport gases to cells by way of the bloodstream.
o Tissue, in this case connective/blood, is involved in internal respiration which gets gases to red blood cells (RBCs).
o Cells, in this case RBCs, exchange CO2 to O2 using cellular respiration.

260
Q

ORGANS include:

A

Nose: External nares/nostrils; bone/ cartilage with internal hairs that filter the air you breathe in.
o Nasal cavity: Hollow space behind nose; separated by the septum; bone/cartilage lined with mucous membranes that filter, warm, and moisten incoming air; conduct air to pharynx.
o Sinuses: Sinuses are cavities that reduce the weight of the skull and serve as resonant chambers; located in the ethmoid, sphenoid, maxillary, and frontal bones of the skull.
o Pharynx: “Throat;” nasopharynx, osopharynx, and laryngopharynx; wall of skeletal muscle lined with mucous membranes; passageway for air and food.
o Larynx: “Voice box;” home of the vocal cords; sits superior to the trachea and the esophagus sits posterior to the trachea; glottis is the opening of the larynx and epiglottis is the flap that covers and closes the larynx when you swallow to keep food etc. out of airway; laryngitis is an inflammation of the larynx.
o Trachea: “Windpipe;” located in the mediastinum extending from the larynx; looks a bit like a vacuum hose due to ridges of hyaline cartilage; anything above trachea is upper-respiratory, anything below is lower respiratory (basically lungs); origin of bronchi.
o Bronchial Tree: Located in the lungs; levels (bifurcations) to know: 1. Primary bronchi-the first parts to enter the lungs; 2. Secondary bronchi-branch into each lobe; 3. Tertiary bronchioles; 4.Terminal bronchioles-end of the bronchiole tree; 5. Respiratory bronchioles-start of respiratory branches; 6. Alveolar duct-passageway; 7. Alveoli sac-surrounds alveoli, full of capillaries that make embalming easier; 8. Alveoli-primary sites of gas exchange in the respiratory system
o Lungs: Right lung has three lobes (superior/upper, primary, and inferior/lower) and left has two lobes (superior/upper and inferior/lower) as well as the cardiac impression (room for the heart.

261
Q

THE URINARY SYSTEM

• FUNCTION:

A

Elimination of wastes and fluids

262
Q

Kidney

A

Bean-shaped organ that helps to regulate blood pressure, forms urine, helps to regulate blood composition, and aids in balancing body’s pH (indirectly affects the body’s cardiovascular system); kidneys are retroperitoneal and the right kidney sits lower than the left due to its location inferior to the right lobe of the liver

263
Q

Ureter

A

Channels/tubes that allow urine to pass from the kidneys to the urinary bladder

264
Q

Urinary Bladder:

A

Hollow organ that is able to distend or expand and store urine; lined with smooth muscle and transitional cells which allow for its flexibility; in females, bladder sits just under the uterus

265
Q

Urethra

A

Allows urine to pass from urinary bladder to the outside of the body; longer in men than women

266
Q

Nephro-/Renal:

A

If you see these terms, you can be fairly certain they refer to the urinary system (kidneys)

267
Q

Renal Artery

A

Supplies oxygenated blood TO the kidney (arteries carry blood away from heart); meets the abdominal aorta

268
Q

Renal Vein:

A

Sends blood back to the heart for oxygenation after filtering it (veins carry blood to the heart); meets the inferior vena cava

269
Q

Renal Pyramids

A

Can be seen in cross-cuts; structures of the kidney that contain nephrons where urine is produced

270
Q

Nephrons

A

Smallest unit in kidney; where urine is produced

271
Q

Neprolith

A

Kidney stone

272
Q

Neprolithiasis

A

Process by which kidney stones are formed

273
Q

Urea

A

Precursor to uric acid which is main component of urine

274
Q

Effects of Urea on formaldehyde:

A

Urea increases nitrogenous bases within urine and has a neutralizing effect on formaldehyde; ammonia (NH3) is a by-product that also neutralizes formaldehyde; increasing the strength of solution in some cases (ex. those who experienced renal failure) can keep it from being neutralized by ammonia

275
Q

Composition of urine:

A 
Urine is (or should be) 95% water (also contains urea and uric acid, as well as creatinine); pH can vary from 4.5 to 8 but 7.2 was described as “normal” in class lecture
o pH scale:  See below. 0-7: Acidic; 7: Neutral; 7-10: Alkaline/Basic. Vinegar is an
276
Q

Respiration : Five Parts

A

Pulmonary ventilation* = breathing;
●External respiration* = air into lungs; gas exchange (O2 load/ CO2 unload); air out;
●Transport of respiratory gases = gases in blood transported from lungs to body cells and back to lungs;
●Internal respiration = exchange of gases at body capillaries (O2 unload/CO2 load).
●Cellular respiration = use of oxygen by cells to produce energy (production of CO2).
* Only these two portions are included in the respiratory system.

277
Q

Organ of the respiratory system

A

Nose external nares or nostrils , bone and cartilage with internal hairs traps large particles.
Nasal cavity- bone and cartilage lined with mucous membrane and moistens incoming air .

278
Q

Organs of the Respiratory System

A

Nasal conchae- superior , middle and inferior divide nasal cavity into a serine of groove-like passageways
Pharynx- wall of skeletal muscle line with mucous membranes.
Passageway for air and food
Nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

279
Q

Organs of Respiratory System

A

Larynx( or voice box)
Thyroid cartilage, epiglottis closes off the airway during swallowing.
Two pairs of vocal folds
Glottis= triangular slit; opening between two pairs of vocal cords
Cricoid Cartilage= ring of hyaline cartilage attached to first ring of trachea; site of tracheotomy
Trachea (windpipe- Location: mediastinum; anterior to esophagus; extends from larynx to T5
Structure: 16-20 incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage + C-rings
Function= support against collapse; continue to warm, moisten, and filter air.

280
Q

Organs of the respiratory system

A 
Bronchial tree (witching lungs)
Primary bronchus leads into each lung and then branches into secondary bronchi, which branch to each lobe and then branch into tertiary bronchi which each serve one of the 10 lobules ( bronchopulmonary segment) that divide into bronchioles which branch several times into tubes called terminal bronchioles .
281
Q

Organs of the respiratory system

A

Lungs

Location: thoracic cavity

282
Q

Urinary system consists of

A

Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra

283
Q

Location of kidneys

A

The kidneys which are positioned retroperitoneally lie on either side of the vertebral column, high on the posterior wall of the abdominal cavity

284
Q

Functions of the kidneys

A
  • removal of metabolic wastes from the blood and excretion to the outside of the body
  • regulation of red blood cell production, blood pressure, calcium ion absorption, and the volume, composition, and pH of the blood
285
Q

Urine composition

A

about 95% water

  • usually contains urea, uric acid, and creatinine
  • may contain trace amounts of amino acids and varying amounts of electrolytes
  • volume varies with fluid intake and environmental factors
286
Q

Elimination of Urine

A 
nephrons
• collecting ducts
• renal papillae
• minor and major calyces
• renal pelvis
• ureters
• urinary bladder
• urethra
• outside
287
Q

Ureters

A 
25 cm long
• extend downward posterior to the parietal peritoneum
• parallel to vertebral column
• in pelvic cavity, join urinary bladder
• wall of ureter
• mucous coat
• muscular coat
• fibrous coat
288
Q

Urinary Bladder

A

hollow, distensible, muscular organ located within the pelvic cavity, posterior to the symphysis pubis and inferior to the parietal peritoneum

289
Q

Urethra

A

tube that conveys urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body

290
Q

The nervous system (neurology)

A

Neurology

291
Q

THERE ARE TWO DIVISIONS TO THE BODY’S NERVOUS SYSTEM:

A

Central Nervous System and peripheral nervous system

292
Q

Brain

A

is the largest and most complex part. It has three parts: the cerebrum (largest part; “gray matter”), the cerebellum (posterior, inferior to the cerebrum, smaller portion), and the brain stem (comprised of—from top to bottom—the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata).
▪ The brainstem connects the brain and the spinal cord.

293
Q

How many nerves in the cranial ?

A

12

294
Q

The spinal cord has

A

31 segments and, thus, 31 pairs of nerves.

295
Q

Brain

A

Remember brain purge is creamy, white and/or pink when tinged with blood.

296
Q

he brain has spaces, called

A

Ventricles

297
Q

ventricles

A

that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The 1st and 2nd ventricles are in each cerebral hemisphere. The 3rd ventricle is anterior to the cerebellum. The 4th ventricle is located at most inferior portion of the cerebellum.

298
Q

Meniges

A

cover the entire brain and brain stem. It is composed of three layers: the dura mater (most superficial layer, very “dura”ble or tough); the arachnoid mater (looks like a web, blood supply source); and the pia mater (similar to saran wrap, deepest layer).

299
Q

Sulci

A

plural of sulcus) are the lines in the gray matter of the brain. Gyri (plural of gyrus) or convolutions are the mounds or bumps of the gray matter.
▪ The longitudinal fissure separates the hemispheres of the brain.

300
Q

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

A

The lymphatic system is strongly correlated to immunity—going all the way back to chapter three with lymphocytes (monocytes) being agranular and “eating” disease in the body. The system distributes white blood cells to fight infection.

301
Q

Lymph nodes/glands are located in the following areas of note:

A

CERVICAL: neck
o AXILLARY: under arms
o THORACIC: thoracic cage
o INGUINAL: Groin

302
Q

Organs of the lymphatic system include:

A

o TONSILS (didn’t really discuss)
o SPLEEN: Largest organ of the lymphatic system; shaped like a tongue. Inferior/posterior to the stomach. Due to the amount of infection it holds, it could be toxic if it ruptures.
o THYMUS: This is where white blood cells originate (t-lymphocytes). Sits on top of the heart. The thymus is larger in infancy because infants have no exposure/immunity to anything. It is much smaller as you age/develop immunity.

303
Q

cistern chyli

A

is important to remember as the central location or the distribution center of the lymphatic system.

304
Q

Characteristics of the central nervous system

A
  • consists of the brain and the spinal cord
  • brain is the largest and most complex portion
  • brain stem connects the brain and the spinal cord
305
Q

The brain

A

Also known as encephalon

306
Q

Division of the brain

A

Cerebrum-largest part of the brain
Cerebellum- posterior , smaller portion of the brain. Posterior and inferior to the cerebrum
Brain stem- composed of the midbrain pons, and medulla oblongata. All attach the brain to the spinal cord.

307
Q

Divisions of the brain ventricles

A

Four cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

308
Q

Meninges

A

Composed of three layers
Dura mater- outermost layer
Arachnoid mater- middle layer
Pita mater- innermost layer

309
Q

Cerebrospinal fluid

A

Completely surrounds brain and spinal cord

310
Q

Spinal cord

A

Two functions:
Center for spinal reflexes
Sends nerve impulses to and from the brain
Has 31 segments and each gives rise to a pair of spinal nerves

311
Q

Peripheral nervous system

A

Consists of the nerves that branch from the CNS

312
Q

Endocrine glands

A

Secrete substances into the internal environment, hormones secreted into the bloodstream.

313
Q

Exocrine glands

A

Substances secreted into surrounding cells and act as “messengers” to the surface of the skin

314
Q

Paracrine glands

A

Substances secreted into surrounding cells and act as “messengers” to stimulate the activity of those cells

315
Q

Location/Function of the following Endocrine Glands

A

Pituitary - brain
Thyroid- throat
Parathyroid- throat
Suprarenals (adrenals)- superior to the kidneys.
Gonads- reproductive organs
Pancreatic islet (Lesley’s of Langerhans)- pancreas

316
Q

lymphatic system

A

Functions of the lymphatic system

  • transportation of interstitial fluids
  • fight infection
317
Q

Lymphatic system

A 
Accurately locate the following:
Lymph vessels
Cisterns chyli
Thoracic ducts
Right lymphatic duct
318
Q

The lymphatic system (structures)

A 
Lymph nodes
Lymph organs
Tonsils
Spleen 
Thymus
319
Q

KIDNEYS

A

produce urine, regulate blood pressure, and rid body of toxins. The smallest unit within the kidney is the nephron.

320
Q

URETERS

A

transport urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder

321
Q

URINARY BLADDER

A

a hollow organ with the ability to distend that is responsible for the storage of urine until release. Lined with smooth muscle.

322
Q

URETHRA

A

transports urine from the urinary bladder to the outside. The urethra is longer in men than in women.

323
Q

transports urine from the urinary bladder to the outside. The urethra is longer in men than in women.

A

takes blood from the kidney back to the heart while the renal artery brings oxygenated blood from the heart to the kidney.

324
Q

urea

A

The buildup of urea (which forms uric acid) in the tissues can lead to urine-like smell.

325
Q

Urine has an excessive amount of nitrogenous waste material, especially ammonia. Ammonia neutralizes the effect of formaldehyde, thus it may be necessary to use an arterial solution that may have a higher index (strength) in a case that has had kidney complications to counteract the nitrogenous bases.

A

Urine has an excessive amount of nitrogenous waste material, especially ammonia. Ammonia neutralizes the effect of formaldehyde, thus it may be necessary to use an arterial solution that may have a higher index (strength) in a case that has had kidney complications to counteract the nitrogenous bases.

326
Q

The formation of kidney stones is called nephrolithiasis, while kidney stones are known as nephroliths.

A

The formation of kidney stones is called nephrolithiasis, while kidney stones are known as nephroliths.

327
Q

The Endocrine System

A

The endocrine system is responsible for secreting hormones. Hormones are chemicals that are released either into the bloodstream or to the outside of the body and are designed to carry out a particular function.

328
Q

The endocrine system consists of

A

▪ Endocrine glands/organs – secrete directly into the bloodstream
▪ Exocrine glands/organs – secrete to outside of the body (sweat glands, sebaceous (oil) glands
▪ Heterocrine glands/organs – perform both endocrine and exocrine functions ie. the pancreas
▪ Autocrine glands – secrete hormones to activate themselves to perform specific function
▪ Paracrine glands – secrete to target cells which will in turn carry out specific functions

329
Q

Endocrine glands/organs

A

secrete directly into the bloodstream

330
Q

Exocrine glands/organs –

A

secrete to outside of the body (sweat glands, sebaceous (oil) glands

331
Q

Heterocrine glands/organs

A

perform both endocrine and exocrine functions ie. the pancreas

332
Q

Autocrine glands

A

secrete hormones to activate themselves to perform specific function

333
Q

Paracrine glands

A

secrete to target cells which will in turn carry out specific functions

334
Q

The brain is also known as the

A

encephalon

335
Q

The largest hemispheres of the brain are called the

A

cerebrum

336
Q

The smaller portion of the brain that is posterior and inferior to the cerebrum is the

A

Cerebellum

337
Q

The brainstem

A

5) connects the brain to the spinal cord (8). The three parts of the brainstem are the midbrain (A), pons (B), and medulla oblongata (C)

338
Q

ventricles

A

3) are spaces is the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

339
Q

pituitary gland

A

4) sits at the base of the brain

340
Q

The lines visible on the brain are called

A

sulci (2) (sulcus, singular) and the “bumps/humps” created by the lines are called gyri (1) (gyrus, singular) and can also be referred to as convolutions.

341
Q

The Lymphatic System

A

The lymphatic system works in conjunction with our immune system to help fight infection

342
Q

Organs within the lymphatic system include:

A 
▪ Spleen (largest lymphatic organ)
▪ Lymph vessels
▪ Lymph nodes – the largest concentration located in the following:
• Cervical (neck region)
• Thoracic (chest)
• Inguinal (groin)
• Axillary (under the arm)

▪ Lymph
▪ Tonsils
▪ Thymus (located atop the heart and is larger during infancy than adulthood)

343
Q

Origin

A

where the muscle is attached to a fixed point

344
Q

Insertion

A

where the muscle is attached to a movable point

345
Q

Belly

A

the fleshy portion of the muscle between the origin and insertion

346
Q

Aponeurosis

A

attach muscles to other muscles

347
Q

Muscles are named according to the following:

A

Action – levator palpebrae superioris
•Number of heads/divisions of attachment– triceps brachii
•Location – temporalis
•Shape – trapezius
•Origin and insertion – occipitofrontalis
•Size – gluteus maximus
•Direction of fibers – transverse abdominis
•Superficial/deep – external oblique/internal oblique

348
Q

MUSCLE ACTIONS

A

Abduction

•Adduction

349
Q

MUSCLE ACTIONS

A

Pronation
•Supination
•Inversion
•Eversion

Flexion
•Extension
•Hyperextension
•Dorsiflexion
•Plantar flexion
  • Rotation
  • Circumduction
350
Q

MUSCLES OF FACIAL EXPRESSION

A 
Occipitofrontalis (Epicranius)
Orbicularis oculi
Orbicularis oris
Procerus
Buccinator
351
Q

MUSCLES OF THE CRANIUM

A

Occipitofrontalis/Epicranius (1)
•Named according to its origin and insertion/location (epicranius)
•Two broad bellies of muscle are connected by an aponeurosis – galea aponeurotica
•Occipitalis – draws scalp backward
•Frontalis – when contracted, raises the eyebrows

352
Q

MUSCLES OF THE MOUTH

A

Orbicularis oris
•Round muscle that encircles the
•Contraction closes the lips

353
Q

MUSCLES OF THE MOUTH (CON’T)

A

Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi
•Levator labii superioris
•Zygomaticus minor
•Zygomaticus major
•Contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the mouth in a superior direction
•Also known as “the laughing muscle” because when contracted for long periods, the muscle can begin to ache
Zygomaticus minor

Contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the mouth in a superior direction
•Also known as “the laughing muscle” because when contracted for long periods, the muscle can begin to ache

354
Q

MUSCLES OF THE MOUTH (CON’T)

A

Buccinator
•Also known as “the trumpeter’s muscle”
•Located in the soft area of the cheek

355
Q

MUSCLES OF THE NECK

A

Platysma
•Broad, flat, and superficial
•Upon contraction, lowers the jaw
•Creates transverse furrows; platysmal sulci
Sternocleidomastoideus
•Measure the widest part of the neck
•Origin – the sternum and the clavicle
•Insertion – the lateral surface of the mastoid process
•Upon contraction, pulls the head sideways

356
Q

MUSCLES OF MASTICATION

A

Temporalis

Masseter

357
Q

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE PECTORAL GIRDLE

A

Levator scapulae
Trapezius
Pectoralis minor

358
Q

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE FOOT

A 
Tibialis anterior
Tibialis posterior
Fibularus longus
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Plantaris
359
Q

MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMINAL WALL

A
  • External oblique
  • Named according to being closer to the surface and the direction of the fibers
  • Internal oblique
  • Named according to being closer to the surface and the direction of the fibers
  • Transverse abdominis
  • Named according to being closer to the surface and the direction of the fibers
  • Rectus abdominis
  • Named according to location
  • Linea alba
  • Dense connective tissue that separates the rectal sheath
360
Q

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE HAND

A 
Flexor carpi ulnaris
•Named according to action
•Flexor carpi radialis
•Named according to action
•Extensor digitorum
•Named according to action
361
Q

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE FOREARM

A 
Brachioradialis
•Named according to origin and insertion
•Brachialis
•Named according to location
•Biceps brachii
•Named according to divisions of attachement
•Triceps brachii
•Named according to divisions of attachement
362
Q

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE ARM

A 
Coracobracialis
•Deltoid
•Named according to shape
•Infraspinatus
•Named according to location
•Supraspinatus
•Named according to location
•Subscapularis
•Named according to location
•Pectoralis major
•Broad, flat muscle of the chest that adducts the arm when contracted
363
Q

MUSCLES THAT MOVE THE FOOT

A 
Tibialis anterior
•Named according to location
•Tibialis posterior
•Named according to location
•Fibularus longus
•Named according to location
•Gastrocnemius
•Calf muscle; two divisions of attachment
•Soleus
•Feather shaped muscle
364
Q

What are the respiration : Five Parts

A

Pulmonary ventilation, external reparation, transport of respiratory gases, internal respiratory, cellular respiration

365
Q

pulmonary ventilation

A

Breathing

366
Q

External respiration

A

Air into lungs; gas exchange (o2load/co2 unload); air out

367
Q

Transports of respiratory gases

A

Gases in blood transported from lungs to body cells and back to lungs

368
Q

Internal respiration

A

Exchange of gases at body capillaries ( o2 unload/co2 load)

369
Q

Cellular respiration

A

Used of oxygen by cells to produce energy

370
Q

Respiratory system consists of the following events

A
  • ventilation
  • external respiration
  • transport
  • internal respiration
  • cellular respiration
371
Q

Respiration

A

is the process of exchanging gases between the atmosphere and body cells.

372
Q

Alveoli

A

gas exchanges between the air and blood occur within the alveoli

• alveolar pores allow air to pass from one alveolus to another

373
Q

Breathing Mechanism

A

Breathing or ventilation is the movement of air from outside the body into the bronchial tree and alveoli
• air movements of inspiration and expiration
• changes in the size of the thoracic cavity due to changes in pressure

374
Q

Sinuses

A

Air-filled spaces in maxillary, frontal, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones

375
Q

Nose

A

Part of face centered above the mouth and inferior
to the space between the eyes

Nostrils provide entrance to nasal cavity; internal hairs begin to
filter incoming air

376
Q

Nasal cavity

A

Hollow space behind nose

Conducts air to pharynx; mucous lining filters, warms, and
moistens incoming air

377
Q

Sinuses

A

Hollow spaces in various bones of the skull

Reduce weight of the skull; serve as resonant chambers

378
Q

Pharynx

A

Chamber posterior to the oral cavity and between
the nasal cavity and larynx

Passageway for air moving from nasal cavity to larynx and for food
moving from oral cavity to esophagus

379
Q

Larynx

A

Enlargement at the top of the trachea

Passageway for air; prevents foreign objects from entering tra-
chea: houses vocal cords

380
Q

Trachea

A

Flexible tube that connects larynx with bronchial tree

Passageway for air; mucous lining continues to filter air

381
Q

Bronchial tree

A

Branched tubes that lead from the trachea to the
aveol

Conducts air to the alveoli; mucous lining continues to filter
incoming air

382
Q

Lungs

A

Soft, cone-shaped organs that occupy a large portion of the thoracic cavity
Contain the air passages, alveoli, blood vessels, connective tissues, lymphatic vessels, and nerves or the lower respiratory tract

FNS121 (5 decks)

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