First lesson Flashcards
Ages of the Nineteenth century (or the long century)
- The age of Revolutions, 1789-1848
- The age of capital, 1848-1875
- The age of empires, 1875-1914
Ages of the Twentieth century (“Age of extremes” or “Short century”)
- Second thirty year war, 1914-1945
- Golden age, 1945-1973
- Age of disorder, 1973-1991
First industrial revolution (1760-1840)
From the mercantilism (domestic system) to liberalism (factory system)
Textile sector= first one to be improved thanks to new inventions
- steam engine
- spinning jenny
- water frame
- power loom
RISE OF TWO SOCIAL CLASSES:
- the middle class (“Gentry”)
- the working class
Liberalism and liberism
1690= birth of liberalism by John Locke (Two treaties of government)– from which derives the modern separation of powers
1776= birth of liberism by Adam Smith (An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of the nations
Consequences of the first industrial revolution
- sudden demographic growth which led to the birth of miserable, rotten peripheries
- increase in life expectancy
- improvement in transportation (steamship and steam locomotive)
The american Revolution (1776-1783)
Tensions rised after the Seven Years War against France (which gave up its territories in America), won by Britain at immense cost (was now broke). The war was mostly fought in the colonies and the king felt right text them for having protected them. They felt it but unfair and unfair was they had no representatives in the Parliament
1770, Boston: five colonists were killed by British troops
1773: Boston Tea Party against the Tea Act
1776: Declaration of Indipendence
1775-1783: American Revolutionary War– ends with the withdrawal of British troops
1787: Constituion of the United States
Considerations about the American Revolution
- US army= first ever army made out of citizens trained by French officials (La Fayette) rather than of mercenaries
- War made the state and the state made war
- Peculiarity of US citizenship and institutions= EQUALITY among all that exerts power and influence in the course of choices, habits and public spirit
- has laid the foundations to all other democracies
The French Revolution, 1789-1799 (pt. 1 from 7 Years War to refusal of the declaration)
Causes: Seven Years War left France (as Britain) un serious financial debt and even lost the war; it then financed the 13 colonies for their war of indipendence founding itself even in more debt.
Ferocious taxation on the poor began. (clergy and nobility payed low if any tax)
Bad seasons brang to few harvests and a severe famine– prices increased, people began to riot
May 1789: convocation of the Estates General (Aristocracy, Church, People) to face the economic crisis due to famines and wars– it was an advisory body
June 1789: making the National Assembly against the power of the Catholic Church and the French monarchy– because of the unfair vote system. TENNIS COURT OATH: they would continue meeting until given equality (jacobins= élite of the third class fighting for the removal of the king)
July 1789: storming of the Bastille and abolition of feudalism– before that the scared king ordered troops to sorround Paris; scared folk created the National guard (militia) to counter-attack
August 1789: publication of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (decleared by La Fayette)– “men are born and remain free and equal in rights” (Art. 1); “man is born free and is everywhere in chains” (Rousseau); “no one may be diesquited for his opinions, not even religious one, as long as they do not affect public order” (Art. 10)
King Louis XVI refuses to approve the Declaration
French Revolution (pt. 2 from July 1790 to the beginning of the Reign of Terror)
The king was forced to stay in Paris– gave consent to many demands of the revolution
July 1790: confiscation of properties belonging to the Catholic Church in France
June 1791: Luois XVI tries to flee to Belgium– he gets caught sent back and decleared a traitor of the nation
Constitution of 1791: reduces the powers of the king to a simple figurehead= constitutional monarchy
DIVISION AMONG THE REVOLUTIONARIES: the moderates wanted to keep the king; the jacobins (redicals) wanted to destitute him– radicals gained more support
1792: France declares war on Austria and Prussia
1792: Luois XVI is arrested and destituted by the legislative assembly (of jacobin majority)– NATIONAL CONVENTION DECLARES THE FRENCH REPUBLIC
By the same year voluntary citizens claimed victory on Prussian and Austrian mercenaries (armies)
Radical changes were made and every trace of monarchy was to be erased (clergy and nobility)– massacre (aristocracy if liberatedby Prussians would take their revenge)
January 1793: Luois XVI is executed
Disagreement between moderates and radicals: Robespierre calls the jacobins to take arms and the moderates were kicked out of the Assembly
April of the same year begins the REIGN OF TERROR– Committeee of the Public Safety: everyone who was suspected of being enemy of the revolution was arrested.
French Revolution (pt. 3 first acts of the Republic end of the reign of terror)
June 1793: publication of the French Constitution approved by Robespierre
Introduction of military service to defend the Republic from its enemies
Economic crisis struck due to the efforts against Prussia and Austria
People outside Paris were not really enthusiastic about the revolution– counter-revolutions spread in the country and the British took control of Tolone (freed by Bonaparte)
July 1794: execution of Robespierre and end of the Reign of Terror
French Revolution (pt. 4 The directory and rise of Napoleon)
1795: after Robespierre The Directory is created– more moderate, counter-oppression (white terror) against radicals.
Royalists insurrection in Paris: national guard guided by Bonaparte stopped the insurrection, was named general and sent to command the campaign in Italy
The Directory was ineffective and unpopular– people were indecisive and did not know what to do
France negotiated peace with Prussia and Spain; Bonaparte single-handendly knocked out Austria
Napoleon was extremely popular and the government was not– firstly he became one of three consuls (he and other two politicians persuaded the government to yield power to them) and later a dictator
With the coup Bonaparte becomes First Consul by promulgating a new constitution (1804); in December 1804 Napoleon was crowned emperor
The Napoleonic Wars
1792: France against Prussia and Austria– was loosing but unexpectedly the army resisted and was able to occupy Belgium (1794)– 1975 Batvian Republic (Netherlands)
1795-6: Italian campaigns to kick Austria out of the war– 1797 Cisalpine Republic (Austria was defeated) /Parthenopean Republic (Southern Italy)/ Helvetic Republic (Switzerland)/ Roman Republic (Rome state)/ Republic of Danzig
Then he was sent to Egypt to be kept far from France (fear of his ambitions) where his fleet was sunk by the British Nelson– France left alone faced the Second Coalition which was joined by Russia too.
Napoleon came back and became emperor– defeated the Austrian forces in Italy again
1802 UK too signed a treaty with France because of his bad economy
UK promptly decleares war on France again due to treaty’s violation
Third Coalition: UK, Austria, Russia, Naples and Sweden– Austria was defeated for the third time and then Bonaparte conquered Naples
He then established a new confederation in Germany with him as protector and gave the new conquests to family members and friends
A Fourth coalition was defeated and a blockade against the UK was formed
1807-14 counteroffensive: Austria, Prussia, UK and Russias defeated Napoleon
1815: Waterloo
Napoleonic Reign
Stepped back from radical positions of the revolution– especialy regarding the Church and gave religious freedom= brang back the Church cause most people were Catholic
National bank, currency reform, improve taxation and welfare system; reform of the legal system; less corruption; meritocratic reform of education (based on ability)
The origins of the italian national identity
1797-1802: Cisalpine Republic
1802-5: making of the italian republic
1805-14: making of the kingdom of Italy after the coronation of Napoleon in Milan as king
RESTORATION:
- kingdom of Sardinia (Savoia)
- lombardy-Veneto to Austria
- duchy of Modena and Reggio
- duchy of Parma and Piacenza
- grand duchy of Tuscany goes into the asburgic hands
- papal state
- kingdom of the two Sicilies back to the Borbone
Unitarian movements start emerging:
1. giovine italia (Mazzini)
2. Neoguelphism (Gioberti)
First movements of indipendence are born under Napoleon (=figure of a hoped freedom)
French Constitution of 1795
- Council of 500= legislative organ elected by suffrage whose a third is renewed every year: proposies laws
- Council of Elders= legislative assembly whose a third get renewed each year, approves laws and elects the Directory
- Directory= holds the executive, 5 consuls– one cannot be consul twice if not after more than 2 years
