Final unit 6 Flashcards
Bacteria
A prokaryotic, single celled organism that causes disease. Lacks organelles and can produce toxins.
Antibiotics
Help to fight bacterial infection. They can be bactericidal, interfere with DNA synthesis or inhibit protein synthesis. Gram negative are harder to penetrate and lipid soluble antibiotics have a quicker action time.
Antibiotics - inhibiting cell wall synthesis
These are competitive enzyme inhibitors that stop cell wall synthesis. The weakening of the cell wall can lead to it bursting (osmolysis) due to the water.
Inflammation response
Occurs when tissue is damaged. Increases blood supply for a quicker recovery. The capillaries become leaky/more permeable so leukocytes, thrombocytes and phagocytes can move to the site. Swelling is caused by increased tissue fluid containing oxygen, nutrients and also helps to remove waste products.
Humoral response
Takes place in the bone marrow. A foreign antigen is recognised leading to plasma cells being activated by helper T cells and B lymphocytes. Plasma cells identify the correct antibody for the antigen. This then mass divides flooding the bloodstream. Cytokines are released showing this antigen needs to be lysis by toxins or phagocytes. Some plasma cells remain in the blood even after the antigen is gone as memory cells.
Blood clot
A capillary is cut/damaged leading to bleeding. The blood helps to flush any pathogen out so it doesn’t enter the blood. The blood vessels around the breakage become more permeable so leukocytes and phagocytes move out the blood. Pus accumulates from pathogen debris. Increased tissue fluid helps to provide the area with more nutrients but can put pressure on nerve endings causing pain. Thrombocytes accumulate in the area producing a fibrin net. Erythrocytes get stuck in the net forming a scab while the skin below heals.
Mouth
Mechanical digestion by teeth. Salivary amylase breaks down starch to maltose.
Stomach
Goblet cells in the stomach lining secrete mucus protecting the stomach from HCL which is secreted by parietal cells. Protease is secreted as a proenzyme, pepsinogen, to prevent self digestion. Pepsinogen is activated to pepsin once combined with HCL. This breaks down polypeptides to smaller polypeptides. Endo/exopeptidase help to lysis the smaller polypeptides to dipeptides.
Pancreas
Produce pancreatic juice containing lipase, dipeptidase, trypsinogen and maltase. This is then secreted by exocrine cells in the duodenum. The pancreas also produces sodium bicarbonate that helps to neutralise the stomach acid as the stomach contents move into the duodenum.
Serosa
Outer layer that is smooth muscle and secretes lubricant to reduce friction.
Anti-inflammatories (steroids)
Steroids affect metabolic rate. Steroids can also reduce inflammation by binding to intracellular receptors. The drug is an agonist cascading the response by regulating transcription.
NSAIDs
Relieve both pain and inflammation. They block the production of prostaglandins by stopping the enzyme cyclo-oxygenase (COX). This stops nerve endings from being able to produce pain signals to the brain. Prostaglandins are chemicals released by the body at the site of injury.
Biochemical test for protein
Add biuret reagent (alkaline solution) made up of sodium hydroxide and copper sulphate (CuII). If a protein is present the ions form complexes with the peptide bonds changing the solution from blue to purple.
Diastole
The lowest arterial pressure when the heart is at rest/refilling.
Systole
The highest arterial pressure when the ventricles are contracting.
P wave
Atria systole
QRS complex
Ventricular systole and atria diastole at the end
T wave
Ventricular diastole and repolarisation of the heart
Pleural membrane
A thin lining of tissue coating the lungs allowing free movement by secreting lubricant.
Diaphragm
Splits the lungs from the abdomen and acts as a vacuum contracting as you inhale and relaxing as you exhale.
Pulmonary surfacent
A liquid lining the alveoli, lowering the surface tension and prevent the alveoli from collapsing when expiring.
Aerobic respiration equation
Glucose + Oxygen = CO2 + H2O + ATP
ATP
The universal energy currency that can be released quickly in small packages. ATP is made up of three phosphates bonded to adenosine. ATP is formed through respiration an endergonic reaction. When ATP is lysis to ADP + a phosphate, this releases energy through exergonic reaction.
Dystrophin
A protein that runs down muscles to strengthen and prevent injury when contracting and relaxing.
Creatine Kinase
An enzyme that catalyses the reaction of the conversion between ATP and ADP to release energy. DMD patients have higher levels in there blood because damaged muscles lead it into the blood.
Echocardiogram
A type of ultrasound looking at the heart and blood vessels near by. Small probes on the chest send out high frequency waves. Depending on what the wave hit depends on the echo sent back. The probes on the chest receive these echoes stimulating an image on a monitor. This test can detect cardiomyopathy.
EMG
An electrical test records the electrical impulses along muscles. It measures the speed of the transmission. DMD patient don’t respond well to the test.
PCR
Amplifies DNA.
Denaturation- Heat the sample to 95 degrees. This breaks the hydrogen bonds separating the two strands and exposing the base pairings.
Primer bonding- Cool the sample to 55 degrees. Add DNA polymerase, buffer and nucleotides. The primers bond to complementary sequences and hydrogen bonds form.
Extension- Heat the sample to 72 degrees. This activates taq polymerase which activates DNA polymerase. Free nucleotides then more in and bond restoring the original strand.
Beta Blockers
They are competitive antagonists blocking the receptor site for noradrenaline. The adrenal gland produces noradrenaline as part of the sympathetic nervous system. By blocking these receptors the neurotransmitters are not able to act on the heart so the blood pressure and heart rate is reduced putting less strain on the heart.
Glycogenesis
The formation of glycogen from glucose stimulates by insulin released by the beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans.
Glycogenolysis
The formation of glucose from glycogen stimulated by glucagon released by the alpha cells in the Islets of Langerhans.
Skin
The biggest organ and protects the inside tissue from damage and the entry of pathogens. Melanin is produced to protect against UV. Vitamin D is produced in the presence of sunlight.
Epidermis
Produces the protein keratin to make it tough. Constantly new cells are forming.
Dermis
Contains connective tissue, elastic proteins and tough collagen fibres, receptors and the sweat duct.
Adipose tissue
Excess fat for insulation and cushioning.
Sebaceous gland
Synthesises and secretes sebum which protects the skin from damage e.g. dehydration
Ciliated epithelial cells
Tiny hair like structure which wafts mucus to the back of the throat to be swallowed trapping dust particles and microorganisms which then can be killed in the stomach by the acid.
Blood types
Contain the antigen of there own blood group and the antibodies of any letter they don’t have of antigen. O negative can be received by anyone and AB positive can receive any blood.
Primary data
Collected from a source
Secondary data
Researched has previously been gathered and now accessed.
Type 1 error
A false positive. The null hypothesis has been rejected when it is actually true.
Type 2 error
A false negative. The null hypothesis has been accepted when it is actually wrong.
