Final unit 6

Question 1

Bacteria

Answer 1

A prokaryotic, single celled organism that causes disease. Lacks organelles and can produce toxins.

Question 2

Antibiotics

Answer 2

Help to fight bacterial infection. They can be bactericidal, interfere with DNA synthesis or inhibit protein synthesis. Gram negative are harder to penetrate and lipid soluble antibiotics have a quicker action time.

Question 3

Antibiotics - inhibiting cell wall synthesis

Answer 3

These are competitive enzyme inhibitors that stop cell wall synthesis. The weakening of the cell wall can lead to it bursting (osmolysis) due to the water.

Question 4

Inflammation response

Answer 4

Occurs when tissue is damaged. Increases blood supply for a quicker recovery. The capillaries become leaky/more permeable so leukocytes, thrombocytes and phagocytes can move to the site. Swelling is caused by increased tissue fluid containing oxygen, nutrients and also helps to remove waste products.

Question 5

Humoral response

Answer 5

Takes place in the bone marrow. A foreign antigen is recognised leading to plasma cells being activated by helper T cells and B lymphocytes. Plasma cells identify the correct antibody for the antigen. This then mass divides flooding the bloodstream. Cytokines are released showing this antigen needs to be lysis by toxins or phagocytes. Some plasma cells remain in the blood even after the antigen is gone as memory cells.

Question 6

Blood clot

Answer 6

A capillary is cut/damaged leading to bleeding. The blood helps to flush any pathogen out so it doesn’t enter the blood. The blood vessels around the breakage become more permeable so leukocytes and phagocytes move out the blood. Pus accumulates from pathogen debris. Increased tissue fluid helps to provide the area with more nutrients but can put pressure on nerve endings causing pain. Thrombocytes accumulate in the area producing a fibrin net. Erythrocytes get stuck in the net forming a scab while the skin below heals.

Question 7

Mouth

Answer 7

Mechanical digestion by teeth. Salivary amylase breaks down starch to maltose.

Question 8

Stomach

Answer 8

Goblet cells in the stomach lining secrete mucus protecting the stomach from HCL which is secreted by parietal cells. Protease is secreted as a proenzyme, pepsinogen, to prevent self digestion. Pepsinogen is activated to pepsin once combined with HCL. This breaks down polypeptides to smaller polypeptides. Endo/exopeptidase help to lysis the smaller polypeptides to dipeptides.

Question 9

Pancreas

Answer 9

Produce pancreatic juice containing lipase, dipeptidase, trypsinogen and maltase. This is then secreted by exocrine cells in the duodenum. The pancreas also produces sodium bicarbonate that helps to neutralise the stomach acid as the stomach contents move into the duodenum.

Question 10

Serosa

Answer 10

Outer layer that is smooth muscle and secretes lubricant to reduce friction.

Question 11

Anti-inflammatories (steroids)

Answer 11

Steroids affect metabolic rate. Steroids can also reduce inflammation by binding to intracellular receptors. The drug is an agonist cascading the response by regulating transcription.

Question 12

NSAIDs

Answer 12

Relieve both pain and inflammation. They block the production of prostaglandins by stopping the enzyme cyclo-oxygenase (COX). This stops nerve endings from being able to produce pain signals to the brain. Prostaglandins are chemicals released by the body at the site of injury.

Question 13

Biochemical test for protein

Answer 13

Add biuret reagent (alkaline solution) made up of sodium hydroxide and copper sulphate (CuII). If a protein is present the ions form complexes with the peptide bonds changing the solution from blue to purple.

Question 14

Diastole

Answer 14

The lowest arterial pressure when the heart is at rest/refilling.

Question 15

Systole

Answer 15

The highest arterial pressure when the ventricles are contracting.

Question 16

P wave

Answer 16

Atria systole

Question 17

QRS complex

Answer 17

Ventricular systole and atria diastole at the end

Question 18

T wave

Answer 18

Ventricular diastole and repolarisation of the heart

Question 19

Pleural membrane

Answer 19

A thin lining of tissue coating the lungs allowing free movement by secreting lubricant.

Question 20

Diaphragm

Answer 20

Splits the lungs from the abdomen and acts as a vacuum contracting as you inhale and relaxing as you exhale.

Question 21

Pulmonary surfacent

Answer 21

A liquid lining the alveoli, lowering the surface tension and prevent the alveoli from collapsing when expiring.

Question 22

Aerobic respiration equation

Answer 22

Glucose + Oxygen = CO2 + H2O + ATP

Question 23

ATP

Answer 23

The universal energy currency that can be released quickly in small packages. ATP is made up of three phosphates bonded to adenosine. ATP is formed through respiration an endergonic reaction. When ATP is lysis to ADP + a phosphate, this releases energy through exergonic reaction.

Question 24

Dystrophin

Answer 24

A protein that runs down muscles to strengthen and prevent injury when contracting and relaxing.

Question 25

Creatine Kinase

Answer 25

An enzyme that catalyses the reaction of the conversion between ATP and ADP to release energy. DMD patients have higher levels in there blood because damaged muscles lead it into the blood.

Question 26

Echocardiogram

Answer 26

A type of ultrasound looking at the heart and blood vessels near by. Small probes on the chest send out high frequency waves. Depending on what the wave hit depends on the echo sent back. The probes on the chest receive these echoes stimulating an image on a monitor. This test can detect cardiomyopathy.

Question 27

EMG

Answer 27

An electrical test records the electrical impulses along muscles. It measures the speed of the transmission. DMD patient don’t respond well to the test.

Question 28

PCR

Answer 28

Amplifies DNA.
Denaturation- Heat the sample to 95 degrees. This breaks the hydrogen bonds separating the two strands and exposing the base pairings.
Primer bonding- Cool the sample to 55 degrees. Add DNA polymerase, buffer and nucleotides. The primers bond to complementary sequences and hydrogen bonds form.
Extension- Heat the sample to 72 degrees. This activates taq polymerase which activates DNA polymerase. Free nucleotides then more in and bond restoring the original strand.

Question 29

Beta Blockers

Answer 29

They are competitive antagonists blocking the receptor site for noradrenaline. The adrenal gland produces noradrenaline as part of the sympathetic nervous system. By blocking these receptors the neurotransmitters are not able to act on the heart so the blood pressure and heart rate is reduced putting less strain on the heart.

Question 30

Glycogenesis

Answer 30

The formation of glycogen from glucose stimulates by insulin released by the beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans.

Question 31

Glycogenolysis

Answer 31

The formation of glucose from glycogen stimulated by glucagon released by the alpha cells in the Islets of Langerhans.

Question 32

Skin

Answer 32

The biggest organ and protects the inside tissue from damage and the entry of pathogens. Melanin is produced to protect against UV. Vitamin D is produced in the presence of sunlight.

Question 33

Epidermis

Answer 33

Produces the protein keratin to make it tough. Constantly new cells are forming.

Question 34

Dermis

Answer 34

Contains connective tissue, elastic proteins and tough collagen fibres, receptors and the sweat duct.

Question 35

Adipose tissue

Answer 35

Excess fat for insulation and cushioning.

Question 36

Sebaceous gland

Answer 36

Synthesises and secretes sebum which protects the skin from damage e.g. dehydration

Question 37

Ciliated epithelial cells

Answer 37

Tiny hair like structure which wafts mucus to the back of the throat to be swallowed trapping dust particles and microorganisms which then can be killed in the stomach by the acid.

Question 38

Blood types

Answer 38

Contain the antigen of there own blood group and the antibodies of any letter they don’t have of antigen. O negative can be received by anyone and AB positive can receive any blood.

Question 39

Primary data

Answer 39

Collected from a source

Question 40

Secondary data

Answer 40

Researched has previously been gathered and now accessed.

Question 41

Type 1 error

Answer 41

A false positive. The null hypothesis has been rejected when it is actually true.

Question 42

Type 2 error

Answer 42

A false negative. The null hypothesis has been accepted when it is actually wrong.