final study guide Flashcards
Definition of biocultural environmental approach
interrelationship/interaction between human biology (genetics),
culture, and natural environment
e.g. Agricultural Revolution—approx. 12,000 yrs.
interactions between genetics, culture, and natural environment
Scientific Method
Question, Research, Hypothesis, Experiment, Data Analysis, Conclusion, and Communication.
define biocultural/environmental interaction
Recognize the pervasiveness and dynamism of interactions between biological and cultural phenomena
EX. sickle cell anemia
Physical Anthropology
The branch of anthropology concerned with the study of human biological and physiological characteristics and their development.
EX> study of the human body
Catastrophism (Cuvier)
Belief in sudden event that wiped out all prehistoric animals
Carolus Linnaeus
Father of taxonomy- classifying animals according to morphological similarities & differences.
Thomas Malthus
-believed in struggle for survival
-population increases faster than food supply
-helped Darwin develop his theory of natural selection
Jean Baptiste Lamarck
environment is important to adaptation, evolving into complexity
-spontaneous generation
-supported evolution by law of inheritance of acquired characteristics
Uniformitarianism (Lyell)
Natural forces that occur in the past are still occurring today
DNA(Watson, Crick, Franklin)
They discovered the structure of nuclear DNA (nDMNA) discovery (20th century)
1962 Nobel Prize- James Watson, Francis Crick & Maurice Wilkins
they realized that DNA was made up of two chains of nucleotide pairs that encode the genetic information for all living things.
Darwin & Natural Selection; Wallace
if an animal has some trait that helps it to withstand the elements or to breed more successfully, it may leave more offspring behind than others.
Reproductive Fitness
The reproductive fitness reflects the potential of an individual to pass on its genes to the subsequent generations.
Mendelian genetics
explains the underlying mechanism
of how simple traits (at a single locus) are inherited
Mendel
discovered the basic principles of heredity and laid the mathematical foundation of the science of genetics. (genes do not blend)
Recessive
Recessive is a trait that is expressed only when genotype is homozygous. (both parents have the same trait but is recessive.
Dominance
Trait is always expressed
Homozygotes Dominant
a genotype where an individual inherits two copies of a dominant gene.
Alleles
Alternate forms of a gene
Mendelian Laws
the Law of Dominance and Uniformity, the Law of Segregation, and the Law of Independent Assortment
Law of segregation
every trait has two discrete particles one
inherited from the mother and one from the father
law of independent assortment
the inheritance of one trait does not affect the
inheritance of other traits
DNA discovery
Adenine and Guanine
are purines
*Thymine and Cytosine
are pyrimidines
Adenine always pairs with thymine
cytosine pairs with guanine
Heterozygotes Dominant
the dominant allele overrules the recessive one.
Homozygous Recessive
homozygous recessive, if it carries two copies of the same recessive allele.
Mitochondria DNA mtDNA (bones)
Circular DNA molecule: 16,569 base pairs in length (37 coding genes) small genome. found inside cellular organelles called mitochondria
Chromosomes
Strands of DNA containing thousands of genes
Explanation: They pass down the DNA from parents to offspring.
Somatic Cells (diploid)
The somatic cells are any cells besides the sex cells
Gametes (haploid)
Sex cells
Mitosis
production of identical body cells (adult cells) for example. Skin, kidney, heart, muscle, etc. the repair after surgery.
Explanation: mitosis is the repair of body cells after surgery or accident
Meiosis
meiosis is the cell division that produces sex cells (gametes)
ABO Blood System
Antigens: proteins on surface of cell—identifies the cell; foreign antigens can cause an immune reaction
Antibodies (immunoglobulins): important cells in the immune system—they bind to foreign antigens
Locus
Location of a gene on the chromosome
(loci [plural] several genes on a chromosome)
Genetics and Heredity
Disease history
Distribution of blood type may be related to disease,
natural selection and survival in human history
EX.
South America: Indigenous populations—100% ‘O’
blood type. WHY?
syphilis The bacteria that cause syphilis is
biochemically similar to ‘A’ molecules (A blood type)
(‘O’ has anti-A antibodies)
Euroasia—high frequency of ‘B’ blood type (lower
frequencies of ‘A’ and ‘O’. WHY?
History: smallpox and bubonic plague in Euroasia
Blood type ‘A’ individuals susceptible to smallpox
Blood type ‘O’ individuals susceptible to bubonic
plague
*While the ‘A’ and ‘O’ individuals are dying, the
individuals with ‘B’ blood type are thriving
Rhesus Blood Group
Rh-induced hemolytic disease: and Selection Against the Heterozygote
Rh-positive (DD Dd) *protein (antigen) is present on RBC
Rh-negative (dd) *protein (antigen) is not present on RBC
Rh factor: a protein on the surface of RBCs.
If mother is Rh-negative (dd) and father is Rh-positive
(DD), the infant will be Rh-positive (Dd). This leads to
Rhesus incompatibility where the mother’s immune
system will view the fetal RBCs as foreign material and
subsequently generate anti-D antibodies to destroy them.
severe anemia & jaundice in offspring
Polygenic
a characteristic, such as height or skin color, that is influenced by two or more genes.
Pleiotropic
a single gene affects two or more characters.
Regulatory Gene
a gene that regulates the expression of one or more structural genes by controlling the production of a protein (as a genetic repressor) which regulates their rate of transcription
Population genetic
the study of genetic variation within and among populations and the evolutionary factors that explain this variation.
Gene pool
the combination of all the genes (including alleles) present in a reproducing population or species
Point Mutation
Random change of one of the nucleotide base to another
*thymine becomes uracil during protein synthesis
Genetic drift
Random change in allele frequency from one generation
to the next
*Variation in the relative frequency of different genotypes in a small population, owing to the chance disappearance of particular genes as individuals die or do not reproduce.
one population
Founder effect
a few individuals from a population start a new population with a different allele frequency than the original population
Malaria
An intermittent and remittent fever caused by a protozoan parasite that invades the red blood cells. The parasite is transmitted by mosquitoes in many tropical and subtropical regions.
Sickle cell gene
A genetic disorder caused by a mutation in both copies of a person’s HBB gene.
Tuberculosis
an infectious bacterial disease characterized by the growth of nodules (tubercles) in the tissues, especially the lungs.
Typhoid
an infectious bacterial fever with an eruption of red spots on the chest and abdomen and severe intestinal irritation
*Heterozygotes have higher survival rates in tuberculosis and
typhoid environments
Tay Sachs
It’s caused by the absence of an enzyme that helps break down fatty substances. These fatty substances, called gangliosides, build up to toxic levels in the brain and spinal cord and affect the function of the nerve cells
*Ashkenazi Jews have the highest frequency
* heterozygotes have higher survival rates in tuberculosis and typhoid
Cholera and cystic fibrosis gene
heterozygotes in the population have ∼50% functional CFTRs compared with healthy individuals and have a selective advantage in resisting death by cholera
Biological species
a species taxon as a group of organisms that can successfully interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Phylogenetic species
an irreducible group whose members are descended from a common ancestor and who all possess a combination of certain defining, or derived, traits
mode of cladogenesis
*mode of evolutionary change is cladogenesis (branching evolution)
mode of anagenesis
*Mode of evolutionary change is anagenesis (straight line evolution)
Gradualism
smooth gradual processes were at work in natural systems
(Lyell formulated it)
punctuated equilibrium
long periods of stasis followed by short periods of rapid change
(Niles Eldredge came up wit it)
Gene flow (migration)
The movement of genes from one population to another (i.e., migration, admixture)
(everyone)
*Acts to reduce differences among groups
Directional Selection
Nature selects one extreme or the next in continuous traits (as the environment changes)
*when environmental pressures favor one phenotype over another
EX. Peppered Moths
Stabilizing selection
Nature selects against extremes (loves middle) (birth weight, finches during drought)
Balancing selection
Nature selects against Homozygotes and for Heterozygotes in discrete traits
EX. Malaria and Sickle Cell Gene and tay sachs
Sexual selection
In population a trait (usually in males) increases in frequency over time because of the advantages it confers in winning mates
Arboreal hypothesis
the general primate characteristics:
forward-facing eyes, stereoscopic-binocular vision (providing
distance and depth perception) , color vision, and grasping hands &
feet all evolved for adaptation to life in the trees
visual predation hypothesis
the general primate
characteristics: forward-facing eyes, stereoscopic-binocular
vision (providing distance and depth perception), color vision, and
grasping hands & feet all evolved for preying on insects
and small mammals in the trees
Hypothesis for Primate Origins continued
angiosperm radiation hypothesis
the general primate
characteristics: forward-facing eyes, stereoscopic-binocular
vision (providing distance and depth perception), color vision, and
grasping hands & feet all evolved for finding and eating
fruits [made available with the radiation (i.e., spread) of flowering
plants (called angiosperms]
Old World Monkeys Characteristics
downwardly directed nostrils
-total premolars: 8
-total teeth: 32
-dental formula: 2-1-2-3
-habitual quadrupedal locomotion both in
trees and ground
-no prehensile (grasping) tail
-diurnal (daytime) (100%)
-all limbs same length
-larger than New World monkeys
-*high frequency of sexual dimorphism (size difference between males
and females), polygynous—single alpha male & several females
-teeth: molar cusps: bilophodont
*High degree of sexual dimorphism suggests male-male competition for females
New World Monkeys
round nostrils facing laterally
-prehensile (grasping) tail
-total premolars: 12
-total teeth: 36
-dental formula: 2-1-3-3
-diurnal (daytime) (99%)
-arboreal (in the trees) quadrupeds
-all limbs same length
-smaller than Old World monkeys
-low frequency of sexual dimorphism (size difference between
males and females in mammals)
‘owl’ or ‘night’ monkey: nocturnal (night time)
Apes
No tails
-Larger than monkeys
-Brains are larger and more complex than those of all monkeys
-invest most of the time in raising young
-Dental formula: 2-1-2-3
-Y-5 molar cusps pattern
-High degree of sexual dimorphism (size difference between males &
females, polygynous—single alpha male and several females
-shoulder joint is very flexible and capable of wide angle of
movement
primate adaptations arboreal
a rotating shoulder joint, separated big toes and thumb for grasping, and stereoscopic vision.
Honing complex
the arrangement of the upper canine and lower third premolar that allows the back edge of the upper canine to be sharpened or honed against the front edge of the lower premolar.
Polygynous
each male mates with multiple females
dominance hierarchy
The dominance hierarchy is a clearly discernible ranking order of group individuals, determined by the outcomes of aggressive and submissive (together, agonistic) social interactions that create asymmetrical dominance relationships between individuals.
Parental investment
any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases that offspring’s chance of surviving (and hence reproductive success) at the cost of the parent’s ability to invest in other offspring
Infanticide
infanticide in non-human primates occurs when an individual kills its own or another individual’s dependent young.
Prosimii
a primitive primate of a group that includes the lemurs, lorises, bushbabies, and tarsiers.
NWM Dental formula
2-1-3-3
OWM Dental formula
2-1-2-3
Apes and Humans Dental formula
2-1-2-3
Prehensile
adapted for seizing or grasping especially by wrapping around.
Arboreal
living in trees
terrestrial
living on land
Monkey (leaf-eaters-adaptation)
they have specialized stomachs and digestive systems that allow them to process leaves. (howler monkeys, colobus)
which primate species/primate group are closer to humans
Apes
Y-5 Pattern
the lower molar teeth of apes and humans have five cusps, or raised points, on their grinding surfaces
African apes
bonobos, chimpanzees, gorillas, and humans.
Asian apes
gibbons, humans, and orangutans
Define sexual dimorphism. Be able to name two ape species where sexual dimorphism is most
noticeable? What does it suggests about social organization (mate selection)?
distinct difference in size or appearance between the sexes of an animal in addition to difference between the sexual organs themselves.
Gorillas and Orangutans (males have bigger bodies than females)
exhibited in primates may correspond to the intensity of competition between members of the same sex for access to mates–intrasexual competition, counteracted by fecundity selection on the other sex.
‘Silverback’
-fully adult males have grey hair on their backs (“silverbacks”)
Sagittal crest
adult males have a sagittal crest (a ridge of bone in center of skull for
attachment of chewing muscles)
Bonobos
smallest of the living apes
-adapted to life in the trees
-highly agile movement: brachiation
-longest arms of the living apes
-fingers are long/thumb short
*almost no sexual dimorphism (male & female same size)
(no male-male competition for females)
-social organization: monogamous (family group)
*Sexual dichromatism: (males and females have different fur color)
Bilophodont
When two lophs form transverse, often ring-shaped, ridges on a tooth
Estrus Cycle
the recurring reproductive cycle in many female mammals, including estrus, ovulation, and changes in the uterine lining.
Altruistic behaviors
actions that benefit another at a cost to oneself
EX. grooming, food sharing, tolerance, and support.
key differences in the morphology-based and genetically-based taxonomy
DNA barcoding uses molecular information to classify species, whereas morphological taxonomy uses morphology and phenotypic characteristics to distinguish between one species and another.
Hominins Geographic location
Eastern Africa and southern
Hominins
humans and all extinct
bipedal ancestors
a primate of a taxonomic tribe ( Hominini ), which comprises those species regarded as human, directly ancestral to humans, or very closely related to humans.
Bipedalism
a major type of locomotion, involving movement on two feet.
stable oxygen and carbos isotopes
oxygen =increase in 18 O colder
stable 18 O= warmer
carbon 12C and 13 C in animal bone and teeth
higher is dry (grassland)
lower is woodland
chimpanzee lineage vs. human lineage
Humans and chimps share a surprising 98.8 percent of their DNA.
Human and chimp DNA is so similar because the two species are so closely related. Humans, chimps and bonobos descended from a single ancestor species that lived six or seven million years ago.
traits of bipedalism
pelvis is short and wide.
legs are longer than the arms.
femora (thigh bones) slant inwards (the hips are wide apart but the knees are close together)
femur and tibia (shin bone) join at an angle.
“Lucy” (scientific name, location and date)
Australopithecus afarensis
Hadar, Ethiopia
November 24, 1974
Oldowan complex
the Oldowan is the oldest-known stone tool industry. Dating as far back as 2.5 million years ago, these tools are a major milestone in human evolutionary history: the earliest evidence of cultural behavior.
three hypothesis of hominid emergence
larger cranial capacity- *(hallmark of genus Homo)
-reduction in size of face, teeth (thinner enamel), jaws
skull: 600-750cc avg. (australopithecines approx. 440cc avg.)
Laetoli
a well-known palaeontological locality in northern Tanzania whose outstanding record includes the earliest hominin footprints in the world (3.66 million years old), discovered in 1978 at Site G and attributed to Australopithecus afarensis.
Homo erectus (pithecanthropus erectus)
It was the first of our relatives to have human-like body proportions, with shorter arms and longer legs relative to its torso. It was also the first known hominin to migrate out of Africa, and possibly the first to cook food.
Homo erectus boy (nariokotome boy)
Homo ergaster boy
Homo erectus
cranial capacity =
900 cc
Africa
1.5 myr
age-at-death:
8-12 yrs old
Nariokotome boy
H. ergaster is the
earlier small-
brained species
1.6 myr WT-15000 (Nariokotome boy)—nearly complete skeleton
Morphology of Homo erectus:
-boyhood cranial capacity 900cc
-long arms & legs/ slender torso
-bodily proportions identical to tropical sub-Saharan Africans
-details of his thoracic (rib cage) vertebrae different compared
to modern humans
geography of homo erectus
Africa and into western Asia, then to eastern Asia and Indonesia.
tools/ subsistence homo erectus
. Acheulian tool technology: (hand ax)
a) more efficient tool
b) requires more skill to make (greater mental cognition)
c) multipurpose tool:
the neanderthal head is much longer, with a more pronounced facial front. The Neanderthal chin and forehead sloped backwards and the nose region protruded forward more than in modern humans.
morphology of the genus homo
-cranial capacity: 800cc to 1,000cc
-large brow ridge (supraorbital tori)
-no chin
-skull broader towards the bottom
-higher skull (measured from base to top of skull)
posterior (occipital) region of cranium
cranial capacity
approx. 1000cc
Homo sapiens
cranial capacity
approx. 1400cc
pithecanthropus erectus (Homo erectus)
pithecanthropus erectus (Homo erectus): discovered in Indonesia in
1891
Eugene Dubois: Dutch medical doctor (amateur fossil hunter)
culture of homo erectus
aves/temporary shelters
a) hunted small & large animals
b) 1.5 myr Olorgesailie—butchering site:
c) fragmented animal bones
d) dental evidence H. erectus: significant meat in diet
e) approx. 550,000 and 300,000 yrs Zhoukoudian, China
-animal bones, tools
-caves/living sites
f) Gathering: vegetables, fruits, nuts
*75% of calories comes from gathering
3. Hunting-gathering-scavenging:
neanderthals
first fossil discovered in a valley (‘thal’), associated
with the German poet Joachim Neander, not far from
the city of Dusseldorf in 1856
-initially the fossil was characterized as a ‘primitive
human’ [Homo sapiens neanderthalensis], a few years
later it was designated as a different species
[Homo neanderthalensis]
neanderthals skeleton
skeleton:
*walked with a bent-kneed gait
*not able to speak
*primitive, stupid, too aberrant to have evolved
into modern humans
*side branch of human evolution
neanderthal biology
Cold-Adapted Neanderthals
Massive nasal cavities of Neanderthal fossils
-to warm and moisten inhaled cold, dry air when they inhaled
Neanderthals were stocky, with large trunks relative to limb
length (large body mass):
-this phenotype minimizes surface area to volume and
conserves heat
Neanderthal Biology
-broad body shape and short limb length
-large brow ridge
-mid-facial prognathism
-occipital bun
DNA neanderthals
*Modern Europeans and Asians have inherited between 1% to 4%
of their genes from Neanderthals
culture and behavior of neandrethals
Mousterian tool technology (levallois technique)
Stone
Oldowan Complex: 2.5/2.6 mya. [A. garhi H. habilis]
*core tools
Acheulian Complex: 2.0 mya. [H. erectus]
*hand axe
Mousterian Complex: 200,000yrs. [H. neanderthalensis]
*Levallois technique (i.e., flakes, choppers, scrapers,
stabbing spears, etc.)
Hunters (injuries): ambush hunting of large and medium size
animals
buried their dead (intentional)
-possibly took care of the sick & elderly
neanderthal geography
Based on the archaeology, Neanderthals fossils have been recovered
in Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Middle East, and Near East
