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Final review Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Natural selection

A

shows a phenotypes more surviving offspring

  • must vary in characteristics
  • more favorable characteristics survive
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2
Q

4 types of natural selection

A
  • directional
  • stabilizing
  • disruptive
  • balanced
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3
Q

Convergent

A

evolve from different original structures, have similar traits but no common ancestry

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4
Q

Divergent

A

evolve in diverse directions from common ancestor, most things

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5
Q

3 major species concepts

A
  • biological
  • morphospecies
  • phylogenetic
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6
Q

Biological concept

A

if they breed, they will be the same species, result in reproductive isolation
- Pre/postzygotic

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7
Q

Morphospecies concept

A

use different morphology to distinguish species, group by looks

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8
Q

Phylogenetic concept

A

same genetics, from same ancestry, smallest used but based on testable facts

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9
Q

Prezygotic

A

begore fertilization, prevents mating

  • temporal
  • behavioral
  • gametal
  • habitable
  • mechanical
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10
Q

Postzygotic

A

can breed but offspring either do not survive or cannot reproduce, includes hybrid viability and hybrid sterility

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11
Q

Allopatry

A

2 different species geologically separated, cannot breed, no gene flow

  • dispersal
  • vicariance
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12
Q

Sympatry

A

close enough to interbreed, can still be speciation

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13
Q

Dispersal

A

group decides to move and form new colony

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14
Q

Vicariance

A

the physical splitting of a habitat

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15
Q

Absorption

A
  • absorb through leaves and roots

- increased SA + V = increased absorption

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16
Q

Vascular system

A
  • xylem

- phloem

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17
Q

Xylem

A

carries water and nutrients up from soil to roots, only up

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18
Q

Phloem

A

carries sugar down from leaves to rest of plant, can move up and down

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19
Q

Phenotypic plasticity

A

a genotypes ability to change its phenotype

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20
Q

Major cell structures

A
  • chloroplasts
  • vacuole
  • plasmodesmata
  • stomata
  • guard cells
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21
Q

Chloroplasts

A

make and store chlorophyll

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22
Q

Thylakoid

A

individual disks of chloroplasts, holds chlorophyll, in stacks

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23
Q

Vacuole

A

large fluid filled vesicle, takes up 90% of cell space, supports

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24
Q

Plasmodesmata

A

gaps in cell wall that allows for communication and transportation

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25
Q

Stomata

A

opening under the leaves that allow for gas exchange and transporation

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26
Q

guard cells

A

cells that open/close depending on how much water they have

- more water = open stomata

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27
Q

How plants have changed on land

A
  • less support = modified roots
  • seed dispersal = pollen vector/wind
  • drying out = close stomata
    nutrients = mycorrhizae
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28
Q

Role of fungi in ecosystem balance

A

keep balance and cycling ecosystems nutrients by breaking down and releasing nitrogen (N) and phosphorite (P) from decay

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29
Q

Major fungi structure

A
  • mycelia = underground
  • fruiting body = above ground, reproduce through spore
  • hyphae = comprise mycelia and fruiting body, webbing
  • gills = under cap of fruiting body, release spores to reproduce
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30
Q

Water potential

A

potential energy, solute added to water decrease water potential
- flows from high potential (low concentration of solutes) to low potential (high concentration of solutes)

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31
Q

Factors that affect water potential

A

solute potential + pressure potential = water potential

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32
Q

Turgor pressure

A

cell wall and plasma membrane pushing against each other when a force is trying to enter the cell

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33
Q

How water moves in and through plants

A

water potential gradient

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34
Q

Water potential gradient

A

potential changes from soil to atmosphere, roots have lower potential than soil so water goes into roots

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35
Q

Cohesion-tension theory

A

water is being pulled out of the xylem from the leaves up, must be replaced

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36
Q

Sugar movement (Pressure-flow)

A

sugar moves from the source with high pressure to the sink with low pressure
- source and sink can change based on seasons

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37
Q

3 major essential nutrients

A
  • hydrogen
  • oxygen
  • carbon
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38
Q

mobile nutrients

A

plant can move nutrients from old to young leaves

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39
Q

immobile nutrients

A

nutrients stay in old leaves, young leaves show deficiency, storage

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40
Q

soil texture

A
  • how fine the rock is broken down
  • help with anchor, root permeability, and water retention
  • gravel is largest, clay is smallest
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41
Q

Cations

A

positive, stick to clay (clay is negative)

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42
Q

Anions

A

negative, dissolve in water, can be leached out with water, readily available to plant

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43
Q

Plant adaptions

A
  • parasitic
  • epiphytic
  • carnivorous
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44
Q

Parasitic adaption

A

harmful, grow on host and steel water and nutrients from xylem, some still photosynthetic, some heterotrophs

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45
Q

epiphytic

A

lives on host, no harm, absorb water and nutrients from rain and tanks (nutrients absorbed through leaves), most autotrove = make own food

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46
Q

canivorous

A

trap and kill insects/animals for nutrients, carbohydrates by photosynthesis and supplement other nutrients, modified leaves for trapping

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47
Q

Key structures of plant repro

A
  • flower
  • seed
  • fruit
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48
Q

Male plant repro parts

A
  • AKA stamen
  • anther = covered/produce pollen
  • filament = stim to anther
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49
Q

Female/pistal/carpel structures

A
  • stigma (top)
  • style (tube)
  • ovary
  • ovule (around egg)
  • eggs
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50
Q

Alternation of generations

A

life cycle with 2 forms, haploid and diploid, alternate between sporophyte and gametophyte state

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51
Q

Haploid

A
  • half of chromosomes
  • produce male OR female gametes
  • gametophyte
  • young
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52
Q

Diploid

A
  • done/full chromosomes
  • sporophyte
  • grown
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53
Q

Formation of female plant gametes

A

Ovary = diploid megasporicyte → divide by meiosis –> to create 4 megaspore → 1 survives → dovode by mitosis –> creates 8 haploid nuclei → 1 turns into egg → 2 synergids on each side to help direct sperm → 2 in middle = polarnucei that take 1 of 2 sperm to become food → egg → zygote

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54
Q

Formation of male plant gametes

A

Mircosprocype → meiosis → microspore → mitosis → mature pollen → sperm cell inside → each grain of pollen = 2 sperm

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55
Q

Double fertilization

A
  • only for angiosperm
  • 1 sperm fuse with egg and form zygote
  • 2nd sperm fuse with polar nuclei to form endosperm (middle), becomes only food source for embryo
  • zygote and endosperm
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56
Q

fruit types

A
  • simple
  • aggregate
  • multiple
  • access
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57
Q

Simple fruit

A

1 flower and 1 carpel/seed

- cherry

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58
Q

Aggregate fruit

A

1 flower and multiple carpels/seeds

- blackberry

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59
Q

Multiple fruit

A

many flowers, each with own carpel/seed

- pineapple

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60
Q

Access fruit

A

not from ovary

- strawberry

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61
Q

Pollination syndromes

A
  • color
  • nectar guides
  • odor
  • pollen
  • shape
  • nectar
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62
Q

Signal transduction

A

convert signal into a form the plant can use

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63
Q

Steps of signal transduction

A
  • get signal from OUTSIDE cell –> bind with cell wall and converted –> target cell
  • no transduction if hormone is in the plant with a receptor
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64
Q

Phototropism

A

plant bends toward the light for photosynthesis

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65
Q

Phototropism receptors

A

phototropins, receive, convert and sent to target

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66
Q

Wavelengths of light for phototropism

A

blue light

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67
Q

How plant bends in phototropism

A

receptors in the tip send signal to lower cells to respond –> expansin breaks down the cell wall and loosens the structure so it can hold more –> auxin goes to shaded side of plant and states to swell

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68
Q

Hormones involved in phototropism

A
  • expansin

- auxin

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69
Q

Red light

A

sun

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70
Q

Far red light

A

shade

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71
Q

Photoperiodism

A

response of organism depending on the photoperiod, lets plant respond to seasons, based of R/FR detection

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72
Q

Wavelengths of light for photoperiodism

A
  • red

- far red

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73
Q

Flowering hormone in photoperiodism

A

florigen

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74
Q

phytochrome

A

pigment that changes based on what plant was last exposed to

- receptor of florigen

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75
Q

Gravitropism

A

gravity turn, tells what direction to send roots/shoots, how plants orient themselves

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76
Q

Amyloplasts

A
  • starch molecules in the cells of the root tips

- move based on what way gravity is pulling them

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77
Q

Hormone responsible for gravitropism

A

auxin

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78
Q

How auxin moves in plant (gravitropism)

A

auxin is evenly distributed until the plant tips over –> auxin builds on one side with most amyloplasts –> roots bend –> plant tries to even out

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79
Q

Wind and touch response

A

if a plant is exposed to a lot of wind or touch, it has to focus on growing thicker to stay upright and alive (thigmomorphogenesis)

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80
Q

Thigmonastic movement

A

non-directional, always the same movement, quick response, action potentials

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81
Q

Hypersentitive response

A

immediate, localized, proteins bind to molecules made by pathogen, proteins signal presence and respond
- stomata close –> produce toxins –> reinforce neighbor cell wall to reduce movement of pathogen –> apoptosis of cell in infected area, try to limit presence and contain pathogen

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82
Q

Systemic acquired resistance

A
  • whole plant/response goes everywhere,
  • after hypersensitive response,
  • resistance, hormone trigger more broad response,
  • primes cells in roots and shoots,
  • expression of pathogen-related genes to limit the chance of being infected again
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83
Q

adaptation

A

long-term

  • adapt physical feature to increase fitness
  • from
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84
Q

acclimatization

A
  • short-term
  • reversible
  • based on environmental variations
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85
Q

3 types of tissues

A
  • connective
  • muscle
  • nervous and epithelial
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86
Q

4 types of connective tissue

A
  • loose
  • dense
  • fluid
  • supporting
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87
Q

Loose connective tissue

A
  • allows expanding

- packing material for organs

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88
Q

Dense connective tissue

A
  • tightly packed
  • bones and muscles
  • connect tendons and ligaments
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89
Q

Fluid connective tissue

A
  • blood

- cells are surrounded by extra cellular matrix that helps keep shape

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90
Q

Supporting connective tissue

A
  • bones and cartilage
  • support vertebrate and protection
  • makes up skeletal system
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91
Q

3 types of muscle tissue

A
  • skeletal
  • cardiac
  • smooth
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92
Q

Skeletal muscle tissue

A
  • attach to bone
  • only voluntary
  • force movement
  • striated cells/rigid
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93
Q

Cardiac muscle tissue

A
  • involuntary
  • walls of heart
  • branch pattern to get signal from nerves for contraction
  • striated cells
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94
Q

smooth muscle tissue

A
  • involuntary
  • not striated but have bump
  • BVs
  • digestive tract
  • regulate body functions (BP and digestion)
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95
Q

Nervous and epithelial tissue

A
  • neurons/nerve cell and support cells, transmit electrical signal, energy flows, dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, axon terminal
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96
Q

homeostasis

A

stability of condition

  • chemical and physical
  • environment can change
  • internal varies slightly
  • temperature
  • pH
  • ion concentration
  • set point
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97
Q

3 regulation componests

A
  • sensor
  • integrator
  • effector
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98
Q

Integrator component

A

compare to set point and determine if response is needed

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99
Q

effector component

A

restore to homeostasis

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100
Q

Termoregulation

A
  • radiation
  • evaporation
  • conduction
  • convection
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101
Q

radiation

A

transfer of heat between things NOT touching

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102
Q

evaporation

A

heat LOSS, usually through water to help regulate temperature

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103
Q

conduction

A

transfer of heat WHILE touching

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104
Q

convection

A

heat exchange between solid and gas (wind)

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105
Q

Endoterm

A

internally regulated/self regulated

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106
Q

Ectotherm

A

externally regulated/by environment

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107
Q

Homeotherms

A

same heat, set to certain heat

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108
Q

poikilotherms

A

varied heat/setpoint

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109
Q

Nutrients in the body

A
  • carbs
  • proteins
  • fats
  • allow body to synthesis ATP and macronutrients
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110
Q

adaptive radiation

A

same species, but each feeds on different food items, overall using nearly every food source
- done by evolving mouth parts

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111
Q

Mechanical and chemical factors in digestion

A
  • mechanical = break down as soon as food enters mouth
  • enzymes breakdown carbs, lipids, and proteins in body
  • salivary amylase
  • lingual lipase
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112
Q

Salivary amylase

A

breaks down carbs in the mouth

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113
Q

Lingual lipase

A

break down lipids in the mouth

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114
Q

Peristalsis

A

rhythmic contraction of the esophagus, stimulated by nerve signal, only one way

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115
Q

Stomach digestion

A
  • break down protein only

- everything is partially digested once leave

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116
Q

Stomach acidity

A

1.5 (by parietal cells)

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117
Q

Stomach hydrochloric acid

A

helps break down protein and eliminate bacteria, stomach acid

118
Q

Denaturing of proteins

A

done is stomach by parietal cells

- proteins pulled apart

119
Q

Proteases

A

pepsin, made by chief cells in stomach

- breaks down proteins

120
Q

Small intestine digestion

A
  • polypeptide chain from stomach –> amino acids –> body can absorb protein
  • more accessory organ help
121
Q

small intestine absorption

A
  • lipids, carbs, proteins in water

- first place absorption happens

122
Q

Small intestine SA

A
  • SA allows for absorption

- increased by villi and macrovilli

123
Q

Pancreatic proteases to small intestine

A

more proteases produced in pancreas –> small intestine –> activated by tripsin –> other proteases activated –> breaks down proteases, DNA, amylase, and lipase –> small intestine –> further broken down

124
Q

Tripsin

A

help activates and breaks down proteases, DNA, amylase, and lipase, all go to small intestine and further broken down

125
Q

mouth

A
  • ingest/digest
  • lipids digested with lingual lipase
  • carbs digested with salivary amylase
126
Q

stomach

A
  • digest/chuming

- proteins digested with acidity/pepsin

127
Q

small intestine

A
  • digest/absorb
  • digest lipids with bile salts and pancreatic lipase
  • digest carbs with pancreatic amylase
  • digest proteins with trypsin and other proteases
  • digest nucleic acids with nucleases
  • absorb lipids, carbs, and proteins in water
128
Q

large intestine

A
  • digest/absorb/compact
  • digest cellulose with symbiotic bacteria
  • absorb water
129
Q

hyperosmotic

A

when the concentration of solutes is higher in the environment

  • water flows out of tissues into the environment
  • seawater
130
Q

hypoosmotic

A

when the concentration of solutes is higher in the tissues

  • water flows from the environment into the tissues
  • freshwater
131
Q

Aquaporins

A

channels specifically for water diffusion, speeds up the process of water movement

132
Q

Nephron structure/kidney function

A
  1. renal corpuscle, blood filtration, filter ions, nutrients, waste, and water out
  2. proximal tubule, reabsorb nutrients, ions, water from 1
  3. loop of henle, salt and water, gradient with fluid around loop, most reabsorbed
  4. distal tube, reabsorb as needed by body
  5. collection duct, may reabsorb water, urea excretion
133
Q

What happens as kidney filter

A

everything is dumped out and only the ions, nutrients, and water are reabsorbed

134
Q

Loop of Henle gradient

A

reabsorb water and salt, want to keep a difference of 200 in ascending (200 less than outside) by pumping out sodium in ascending and equilibrate in descending

135
Q

water regulation (ADH)

A
  • controlled by hormones
  • done in collecting duct and distal tube
  • ADH decreases urine
136
Q

Increased ADH

A
  • when dehydrated, triggers aquaporin insertion

- ADH –> collecting duct –> aquaporin –> increased water –> peritubular capillary

137
Q

Partial pressure

A
  • PA + PB + PC = total
  • fraction of gas x total
  • pressure of one specific gas in a mixture
138
Q

Vertebrate lung structure

A

trachea –> bronchi –> bronchioles –> alveoli

139
Q

trachea

A

separates from the esophagus and splits into 2 bronchi

140
Q

bronchi

A

from trachea, branch into smaller bronchioles

141
Q

Bronchioles

A

from bronchi, eventually each size of alveoli

142
Q

Alveoli

A
  • smallest bronchioles
  • tiny air sacs at the end of bronchioles
  • diffuse CO2 and O2
    surrounded by capillaries
  • 150M per lung
  • fold to increase SA for gas exchange
143
Q

Negative pressure ventilation

A
  • what humans have
  • air is pulled into the body
  • pressure in the chest cavity is 5 mmHg less than atmosphere to keep lung from collapsing
  • humans adjust pressure based on V when we in/exhale
144
Q

Ventilation control

A
  • respiratory center is in the brain
145
Q

What happens when too much CO2 in blood

A
  • CO2 reaches brain –> react/diffuse into cerebrospinal fluid –> cerebrospinal fluid and blood carbon dioxide react with water –> forms carbonic acid –> breaks into hydrogen and bicarbonate
  • increased CO2 = increased hydrogen = more acidic blood = decreased pH
  • neurons recognize decrease in pH –> increased breathing –> increased O2 to tissues
146
Q

Blood

A

connective tissue

147
Q

Components of blood

A

cells, extracellular matrix, formed elements (RBCs, WBCs, and platelets)

148
Q

Functions of blood

A
  • carry O2 and CO2
  • carry nutrients
  • move waste to kidney/liver
  • transport hormone from gland to target
  • carry immune cells to infections
149
Q

Hemoglobin

A

oxygen carrying protein molecule

150
Q

Heme

A

4 chains of polypeptide chain

  • O2 binds to heme
  • 1 hemoglobin = 4 O2 molecules
151
Q

PNS categories

A
  • sensory
  • motor
  • autonomic
  • somatic
  • sympathetic
  • parasympathetic
152
Q

Sensory PNS

A

carry info TO CNS

153
Q

Motor

A

get info FROM CNS and send to effector cells (muscles and glands)

  • autonomic
  • somatic
154
Q

Autonomic

A

control involuntary response

  • sympathetic
  • parasympathetic
155
Q

Somatic

A

control voluntary, connect to muscle tissue

156
Q

Sympathetic

A

fight or flight

157
Q

Parasympathetic

A

rest and digest, conserve and restore energy

158
Q

Flow of info through nervous system and reflexes

A
  • dendrites receive and convert –> axon sends electrical signal –> neurons produce electrical signal (movement)
  • sensory neuron gets stimulated –> brain –> interpret –> interneuron –> motor –> skeletal muscle –> pull away from negative stimulus
159
Q

Na-K pump

A
  1. carrier membrane binds with intracellular sodium
  2. ATP phosphorylates protein with bound sodium
    a. ATP –> ADP (1 phosphorus breaks off and binds with protein)
  3. change shape (kick out 3 sodium)
  4. 2 potassium bind
  5. pot cause dephosphorylation and change shape back
    a. release K+
  6. complete cycle
160
Q

steps of AP from stimulus to after refractory period

A

stimulus->Na channels open (threshold)->more positive (depolarization)->peak forms new AP->membrane potential becomes more negative (repolarization)extra K open-> refractory period/hyperpolarization->Na+-K+ restored

161
Q

Axon structure

A
  • myelin sheath

- nodes of Ranvier

162
Q

Myelin sheath

A

wraps around axon, prevents loss of ions during AP, made of Schwann cells

163
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

gaps in sheath, have Na and K channels, new AP can be generated

164
Q

Synapses

A

how action potentials move from one neuron to another

- tiny gaps between neurons

165
Q

Steps of synapses

A
  • pre-synaptic cell –> axon terminal –> neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicle –> synaptic cleft (gap) –> receptor for neurotransmitters –> post-synaptic cell
  • ap get near cleft –> voltage-gated Ca+ channels open, Ca+ enters pre-synaptic cells –> synaptic vesicle fuse with pre-synaptic and release neurotransmitters –> ion channels in post-synaptic open when neurotransmitters bind with receptor, flow of ions causes change in post-synaptic cells –> ion channels in post-synaptic close when neurotransmitters unbind
166
Q

Broca’s area

A

motor speech area, frontal lobe, motor of speaking, form words and being physically able to talk

167
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

general interpretation, for understanding words and forming words to respond, temporal

168
Q

How sound moves through ear

A

outer ear –> ear cannal –> tympanic membrane –> middle ear small bones –> oval window –> cochlea –> organ of corti –> hair cells –> sensory nerve –> cochlear/auditory nerve

169
Q

function of semicircular canals

A

detects rotation and angular acceleration/deceleration

170
Q

How light moves through eye

A

light enters cornea –> regulated by iris –> pass through pupil and lens –> cornea and lens focus light on retina –> optic nerve

171
Q

Type of light receptors

A
  • photoreceptors
  • cones and rods
  • rhodopsins
172
Q

Function of rods

A

can’t see color, sensitive, can be triggered by single photon, rhodopsins

173
Q

Functions of cones

A

require more light, allow us to see color, S/M/L wavelengths

174
Q

S wavelength

A

blue and purple

175
Q

M wavelength

A

green

176
Q

L wavelength

A

red

177
Q

Taste receptors

A
  • chemoreceptor
  • epithelial
  • have taste pore on apical end and nerve ending on other
  • taste molecules bind to pore and send to brain
  • taste buds are in papilla
178
Q

Taste organization

A

tongue –> papillae (bumps on tongue, taste buds inside) –> taste bud (have receptor cells that connect to nerve fiber –> process different tastes in brain)

179
Q

How muscles move

A
  • locomotive

- non-locomotive

180
Q

Contracting/shortening of sarcomere

A

myosin binds to actin->orientation change->force->slide->to unbind, myosin head binds to ATP->release actin->myosin head returns to original->can bind again

181
Q

Myosin

A

2 long polypeptide chains coiled

- each chain has 2 heads at one end with ATP activity

182
Q

Actin

A

2 chains coiled together

  • tropomyosin
  • troponin
183
Q

Sliding filament theory

A

results from interaction between actin and myosin filaments generate movement relative to one another

184
Q

Trigger of muscle contraction

A
  • initiated by AP from motor neuron
  • muscle fibers are excitable and depolarized by AP
  • opens sodium channels, permitting muscle plasma membrane to generate action potentials
185
Q

Ca2+ release

A

Ap → motor neuron → muscle fiber → motor release neurotransmitters → sodium reach fiber → depolarization → Ca2+ released in tissue -> bind to troponin and change its conformation -> pull tropomyosin strands, myosin and actin interact and contract -> Ca2+ returns to sarcoplasmic reticulum

186
Q

Muscle fiber types

A

slow and fast

187
Q

Slow muscle fiber

A
  • more mitochondria
  • ATP from cellular respiration
  • fatigue slowly
188
Q

Fast muscle fiber

A
  • less mitochondria
  • ATP from glycolysis
  • fatigue quickly
189
Q

Types of skeletal systems

A
  • hydrostatic
  • endoskeleton
  • exoskeleton
190
Q

Hydrostatic

A
  • uses pressure and muscles to move
  • peristalsis
  • filled with fluid with very high pressure
191
Q

Endoskeleton

A
  • 5 components/functions
  • bone
  • joints
  • cartilage
  • ligaments
  • tendons
  • flexor
  • extensor
  • calcium
192
Q

Bones in endoskeleton

A

hard, extracellular matrix

  • calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate
  • meet at joint
193
Q

joint

A

where 2 bones connect

- allow movement

194
Q

cartilage

A

gelatinous matrix

- vary in rigidity

195
Q

ligaments

A
  • bands of connective tissue
  • connect bones to other bones
  • stabilize joint
196
Q

tendon

A
  • connective tissue fiber

- connect to skeletal muscle

197
Q

Flexor

A
  • decrease joint angle

- bones closer together

198
Q

Extensor

A

increase joint angle

199
Q

Calcium in body

A
  • needed for cell division, muscle contraction, and neurotransmitter release
  • osteoclasts will secrete acid into bone to get enough
200
Q

Exoskeleton

A

protect and support

201
Q

Endocrine system

A

glands –> hormones –> target cells

202
Q

Gland

A

produce and release hormones

203
Q

Hormones

A

major componests

204
Q

target cells

A

cells with specific receptor and causes response, some kind of response if triggered

205
Q

Classes of signals

A
  • autocrine
  • paracrine
  • endocrine
  • neural
  • neuroendocrine
206
Q

Autocrin

A

hormones act on the cell that produces them, self-signal, no travel

207
Q

Paracrine

A

cells close together, cells travel but don’t go through blood, diffuse locally

208
Q

Endocrine

A

gland -> hormone -> blood -> cell

209
Q

neural

A

use neurons, 1 neuron sends signal to another NEURON, by neurotransmitters

210
Q

neuroendocrine

A

use neurons, neuron released in hormone -> blood -> goes to target cell

211
Q

hydrophilic

A

move freely through blood on their own, receptor on the outside of target cell, nothing happens if there is no receptor

212
Q

lipophilic

A

have to bind with transport protein to enter lipid membrane, unbinds from transporter when leave blood

  • receptor is on the inside
  • target cell is activated by lipophilic
213
Q

Pituitary gland

A

controlled by neurohormones from hypothalamus

  • oversee and regulate other glands with own hormones
  • anterior
  • posterior
214
Q

anterior pituitary gland

A
  • controlled by neurohormone from hypothalamus
  • main release of hormones that control other glands
  • connected to brain via BV
  • ACTH
  • FSH
  • LH
  • thyrotropin
  • growth hormone
215
Q

posterior pituitary gland

A
  • doesn’t produce any hormones
  • stores hormones from hypothalamus until they are needed
  • hypothalamic nerve ending releases neurohormone
216
Q

sexual animal repro

A
  • 2 animals
  • fusion of gametes
  • meiosis based
  • genetically different offspring
217
Q

asexual animal repro

A
  • no fusing of gametes
  • mitosis based
  • genetically identical offspring
  • budding
  • fission
  • parthenogenesis
218
Q

Budding (asexual)

A

offspring forms without/on parent, break off and grows on its own, genetically identical

219
Q

Fission (asexual)

A

individual split into at least 2 parts, nucleus divides, mitosis, both the same size and fully mature

220
Q

Parthenogenesis (asexual)

A
  • females produce offspring
  • no male gametes
  • low genetic diversity
  • daphnia
  • fertilized = female
  • not fertilized = male
221
Q

3 steps of sexual reproduction

A
  1. gametogenesis (how gametes form)
  2. mating
  3. fertilization (gametes fuse)
222
Q

Gametogenesis for sperm

A

spermatogenesis (1 to 4) = diploid –> mitosis —> differentiation and chromosomes replicate –> primary spermatocyte –> meiosis I –> 2 secondary spermatocytes –> meiosis II –> 4 permatids –> 4 mature sperm

223
Q

Gametogenesis for egg

A

oogenesis (1 to 1) = diploid –> mitosis –> differentiation and chromosome replicate –> primary oocyte –> meiosis I –> 1 secondary oocyte and 1 polar body –> meiosis II –> secondary oocyte splits into 1 ootid and 1 polar body, polar body splits into 2 polar bodies –> finish with 3 polar bodies and 1 mature egg

224
Q

components of mature sperm

A
  • head (surrounded by acrosome enzyme)
  • neck (centriole)
  • midpiece
  • tail
225
Q

components of mature egg

A
  • yolk (fat and cytoplasm)
  • cytoplasm (energy)
  • zona pellucida (outer layer)
  • plasma membrane (thin, between ZP and cytoplasm)
  • corona radiate (very outside, what sperm have to get through)
226
Q

Male repro components and structures

A
  1. spermatogenesis and sperm storage (production = testes; storage = epididymis)
  2. production of accessory fluids (long and skinny seminal vesicle, circle prostate gland, and tiny bulbourethral gland)
  3. transport and delivery of gametes
227
Q

female repro components and structures

A
  1. produce and transport egg (production = ovaries; transported –> oviduct –> uterus)
    1. development of offspring (develop in uterus)
228
Q

transportation and delivery of sperm

A

Vas deferens (very long) transports sperm to ejaculatory duct (right after SV) → mix with accessory fluids through seminal vescle/prostate/bulbourethral → semen → reach base of ejaculatory duct → semen enters urethra for release → leaves from same place as urine

229
Q

Seminal vesicle

A

on top, release fructose to give chemical energy for sperm movement

230
Q

Prostate gland

A

citric acid for sperm nutrients and antibiotic compound to prevent UTI in male reproduction system

231
Q

Bulbourethral gland

A

alkaline mucus to neutralize acidity in urethra, help get through female tract which has a low pH/acidity

232
Q

Steps of fertilization

A
  1. eggs and sperm meet in oviduct
  2. sperm have to compete
  3. fusion must be limited to single sperm because each egg and sperm have 1/2 of chromosomes
233
Q

Prevention of multiple sperm fusion

A
  • temporary

- physical barrier

234
Q

temporary prevention of sperm fusion

A

immediately after sperm-egg fusion

- depolarization of egg membrane –> prevents others from entering

235
Q

Physical barrier of sperm fusion

A
  • after fusion
  • Ca2+ ions released in egg –> cortical granules below surface, fuse with membrane –> release contents of granule, including proteas that digest perm receptors (physical change)
236
Q

Embryo development

A
  • blastocyst
  • trophoblast
  • blastocoel
  • gastrulation
237
Q

Blastocyst

A

mass of cells inside egg

238
Q

trophoblast

A

outside, thin layer of exterior cells

- becomes placenta

239
Q

blastocoel

A

fluid filled cavity inside

240
Q

gastrulation

A

cell movement

  • ectoderm
  • mesoderm
  • endoderm
241
Q

ectoderm

A

outside skin

  • cornea
  • lens
  • epithelial
242
Q

mesoderm

A

middle skin

  • organ system
  • muscle
  • heart
243
Q

endoderm

A

inner skin

  • epithelial lining
  • organ lining
244
Q

key structures of orangogenesis

A
  • notochord
  • neural tube
  • somites
245
Q

notochord

A

under tube, cartilage rod that supports body

246
Q

neural tube

A

develops into brain and spinal cord, formed by notochord

247
Q

somites

A

paired

  • make of mesodermal cells
  • cell adhesion
  • 4 areas that break apart during organogenesis
  • each develop into something
248
Q

Hormones and roles of hypothalamus (GnRH)

A
  • homeostasis
  • GnRH is sent to anterior, then anterior makes LH/FSH
  • hypothalamus –> anterior pituitary gland
249
Q

hormones and roles of pituitary

A
  • LH/FSH

- stimulate reproductive glands to produce sex hormones, stimulate gametogenesis

250
Q

LH effect on males

A

cause testosterone production

- Leydig cells = make testosterone

251
Q

FSH effect on males

A

stimulate sperm production

- Sertoli cells = sperm production

252
Q

LH effect on females

A

secrete estrogen and progesterone to create secondary sex characteristics

253
Q

FSH effect on females

A

estrogen secretion, growth of follicles and eggs/oogenesis

254
Q

Innate immunity

A

everything has it

  • ready to respond to any pathogen (broad)
  • fast
255
Q

adaptive immunity

A
  • only vertebrates
  • must be activated
  • tailored response to specific pathogen
  • after exposure
  • after respond once it can do it more specifically the next time
  • more efficient
  • slower
256
Q

Leukocytes

A
  • monocyte
  • eosinophil
  • basophil
  • lymphocyte
  • neutrophil
257
Q

Monocyte

A

clean up dead cells in tissue

- don’t respond to pathogen

258
Q

eosinophil

A
  • fighting bacteria
  • response to parasite infection
  • overreact to pollen (allergy)
259
Q

Basophil

A

important in mounting non-specific immune response to pathogen
- help build up response

260
Q

lymphocyte

A

B and T cells

261
Q

neutrophil

A
  • kill via phagocytosis
  • 1st responders to invader
  • send alert to signals
262
Q

Inflammation

A
  • immediate response to pathogen
  • pathogen enters body –> platelets release protein to form clot –> wounded tissue and macrophages release chemokines (chems that signal to tell body of invader) –> mast cells secrete messenger chemicals, dilation of BVs –> neutrophils move to infection site, destroy cells of pathogen
263
Q

adaptive immune system characteristics

A
  • custom response based on particular invader
  • produce antibody (protein) that is very specifically bound to antigen
  • can respond to endless array of antibodies
264
Q

Functions of B cells

A

produce specific antibodies which bind to antigen

265
Q

activation of B cells

A

a. B cells recognize invader and bind on outside BCR
• Process antigens and present on surface
b. B cell stimulates helper t cell
c. B cell is activated by helper t cell to rapidly divide
• Either memory or effector
d. B cells get to work

266
Q

functions of T cells

A

recognize and destroy infected host cells

267
Q

activation of t cells

A
  1. Dendritic cell ingests antigen
  2. Enzymes break antigen protein into peptide fragments
  3. Peptide fragments loaded onto MHC protein
  4. MHC-peptide transported to surface
  5. MHC protein presents peptide fragment to T cell
268
Q

B cell receptors

A
  • antigen-specific
  • protein/polypeptides
  • light and heavy chains
269
Q

B cell specificity

A
  • constant is the same for all receptors

- variable regions on receptors change

270
Q

T cell receptors

A
  • alpha and beta chain
  • don’t bind with antigen directly
  • require other cells to recognize antigen→ bind → process → present to t cell → t cells can be activated
271
Q

specificity

A
  • different genetics
  • unique amino acid in variable region (allows to bind to specific epitopes)
  • limitless number of RBCs/TCR/antibodies
272
Q

Cell mediated

A
  • intercellular

- activation of phagocytosis and cytotoxic t cells

273
Q

humoral

A
  • extracellular
  • hasn’t affected cells
  • production of antibodies
  • secreted into blood and lymph and bind
  • opsonization
  • neutralization
  • agglutination
  • co-stimulation of complement proteins
274
Q

opsonization

A

produce large amounts of antibodies that coat pathogen, increases phagocytosis (neutrophil absorb and destroy)

275
Q

neutralization

A

coated pathogens blocked from infecting host cell, turn away

276
Q

agglutination

A

clumping of pathogens, still coated in antibodies, can’t infect
- each antigen binds with 2 pathogens

277
Q

co-stimulating protein

A
  • activate lethal proteins
  • assemble antibody-antigen complex form lethal holes in pathogen membranes
  • pore-forming protein = poke holes
  • apoptosis protein = cause cell death
278
Q

How immune response and vaccines work

A
  • secondary immune response

- mimics an infection to prepare immune system and create daughter memory cells and fighting cells

279
Q

secondary immune response

A

used if infected again, faster and more efficient

280
Q

Types of vaccines

A
  • subunit
  • inactivated
  • attenuated
281
Q

Subunit vaccine

A

contains only antigens from pathogen, part of pathogen but not the entire pathogen itself
- Hep B

282
Q

inactivated vaccine

A

dead/damaged by chemicals, doesn’t cause infection but have antigens
- polio

283
Q

attenuated

A

live, complete viral particles that can infect cells, cultured of species other than normal host, adapt to atypical cells, cannot quickly replicate in normal cells
- smallpox

284
Q

modified roots

A
  • anchor = hold stem to structure
  • prop = stabilize
  • pneumatophores = gas exchange
  • storage
285
Q

total essential plant nutrients

A

17

286
Q

5 stages of germination

A
  • radicle = embryo root, very first
  • cotyledon = first leaves from germination
  • hypocotyle = part of stem under cotyledon
  • epicotyle = above cotyledon
287
Q

hormone for flower sequencing/dying

A

ethylene

288
Q

increased CO2 ___ pH

A

deceases

289
Q

How blood enters heart

A

superior/inferior vena cava

290
Q

parts of complex reflex arc

A
  • sensory
  • motor
  • interneurons
291
Q

After neurotransmitters release __

A

Ca2+ is released

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