Final review Flashcards
Natural selection
shows a phenotypes more surviving offspring
- must vary in characteristics
- more favorable characteristics survive
4 types of natural selection
- directional
- stabilizing
- disruptive
- balanced
Convergent
evolve from different original structures, have similar traits but no common ancestry
Divergent
evolve in diverse directions from common ancestor, most things
3 major species concepts
- biological
- morphospecies
- phylogenetic
Biological concept
if they breed, they will be the same species, result in reproductive isolation
- Pre/postzygotic
Morphospecies concept
use different morphology to distinguish species, group by looks
Phylogenetic concept
same genetics, from same ancestry, smallest used but based on testable facts
Prezygotic
begore fertilization, prevents mating
- temporal
- behavioral
- gametal
- habitable
- mechanical
Postzygotic
can breed but offspring either do not survive or cannot reproduce, includes hybrid viability and hybrid sterility
Allopatry
2 different species geologically separated, cannot breed, no gene flow
- dispersal
- vicariance
Sympatry
close enough to interbreed, can still be speciation
Dispersal
group decides to move and form new colony
Vicariance
the physical splitting of a habitat
Absorption
- absorb through leaves and roots
- increased SA + V = increased absorption
Vascular system
- xylem
- phloem
Xylem
carries water and nutrients up from soil to roots, only up
Phloem
carries sugar down from leaves to rest of plant, can move up and down
Phenotypic plasticity
a genotypes ability to change its phenotype
Major cell structures
- chloroplasts
- vacuole
- plasmodesmata
- stomata
- guard cells
Chloroplasts
make and store chlorophyll
Thylakoid
individual disks of chloroplasts, holds chlorophyll, in stacks
Vacuole
large fluid filled vesicle, takes up 90% of cell space, supports
Plasmodesmata
gaps in cell wall that allows for communication and transportation
Stomata
opening under the leaves that allow for gas exchange and transporation
guard cells
cells that open/close depending on how much water they have
- more water = open stomata
How plants have changed on land
- less support = modified roots
- seed dispersal = pollen vector/wind
- drying out = close stomata
nutrients = mycorrhizae
Role of fungi in ecosystem balance
keep balance and cycling ecosystems nutrients by breaking down and releasing nitrogen (N) and phosphorite (P) from decay
Major fungi structure
- mycelia = underground
- fruiting body = above ground, reproduce through spore
- hyphae = comprise mycelia and fruiting body, webbing
- gills = under cap of fruiting body, release spores to reproduce
Water potential
potential energy, solute added to water decrease water potential
- flows from high potential (low concentration of solutes) to low potential (high concentration of solutes)
Factors that affect water potential
solute potential + pressure potential = water potential
Turgor pressure
cell wall and plasma membrane pushing against each other when a force is trying to enter the cell
How water moves in and through plants
water potential gradient
Water potential gradient
potential changes from soil to atmosphere, roots have lower potential than soil so water goes into roots
Cohesion-tension theory
water is being pulled out of the xylem from the leaves up, must be replaced
Sugar movement (Pressure-flow)
sugar moves from the source with high pressure to the sink with low pressure
- source and sink can change based on seasons
3 major essential nutrients
- hydrogen
- oxygen
- carbon
mobile nutrients
plant can move nutrients from old to young leaves
immobile nutrients
nutrients stay in old leaves, young leaves show deficiency, storage
soil texture
- how fine the rock is broken down
- help with anchor, root permeability, and water retention
- gravel is largest, clay is smallest
Cations
positive, stick to clay (clay is negative)
Anions
negative, dissolve in water, can be leached out with water, readily available to plant
Plant adaptions
- parasitic
- epiphytic
- carnivorous
Parasitic adaption
harmful, grow on host and steel water and nutrients from xylem, some still photosynthetic, some heterotrophs
epiphytic
lives on host, no harm, absorb water and nutrients from rain and tanks (nutrients absorbed through leaves), most autotrove = make own food
canivorous
trap and kill insects/animals for nutrients, carbohydrates by photosynthesis and supplement other nutrients, modified leaves for trapping
Key structures of plant repro
- flower
- seed
- fruit
Male plant repro parts
- AKA stamen
- anther = covered/produce pollen
- filament = stim to anther
Female/pistal/carpel structures
- stigma (top)
- style (tube)
- ovary
- ovule (around egg)
- eggs
Alternation of generations
life cycle with 2 forms, haploid and diploid, alternate between sporophyte and gametophyte state
Haploid
- half of chromosomes
- produce male OR female gametes
- gametophyte
- young
Diploid
- done/full chromosomes
- sporophyte
- grown
Formation of female plant gametes
Ovary = diploid megasporicyte → divide by meiosis –> to create 4 megaspore → 1 survives → dovode by mitosis –> creates 8 haploid nuclei → 1 turns into egg → 2 synergids on each side to help direct sperm → 2 in middle = polarnucei that take 1 of 2 sperm to become food → egg → zygote
Formation of male plant gametes
Mircosprocype → meiosis → microspore → mitosis → mature pollen → sperm cell inside → each grain of pollen = 2 sperm
Double fertilization
- only for angiosperm
- 1 sperm fuse with egg and form zygote
- 2nd sperm fuse with polar nuclei to form endosperm (middle), becomes only food source for embryo
- zygote and endosperm
fruit types
- simple
- aggregate
- multiple
- access
Simple fruit
1 flower and 1 carpel/seed
- cherry
Aggregate fruit
1 flower and multiple carpels/seeds
- blackberry
Multiple fruit
many flowers, each with own carpel/seed
- pineapple
Access fruit
not from ovary
- strawberry
Pollination syndromes
- color
- nectar guides
- odor
- pollen
- shape
- nectar
Signal transduction
convert signal into a form the plant can use
Steps of signal transduction
- get signal from OUTSIDE cell –> bind with cell wall and converted –> target cell
- no transduction if hormone is in the plant with a receptor
Phototropism
plant bends toward the light for photosynthesis
Phototropism receptors
phototropins, receive, convert and sent to target
Wavelengths of light for phototropism
blue light
How plant bends in phototropism
receptors in the tip send signal to lower cells to respond –> expansin breaks down the cell wall and loosens the structure so it can hold more –> auxin goes to shaded side of plant and states to swell
Hormones involved in phototropism
- expansin
- auxin
Red light
sun
Far red light
shade
Photoperiodism
response of organism depending on the photoperiod, lets plant respond to seasons, based of R/FR detection
Wavelengths of light for photoperiodism
- red
- far red
Flowering hormone in photoperiodism
florigen
phytochrome
pigment that changes based on what plant was last exposed to
- receptor of florigen
Gravitropism
gravity turn, tells what direction to send roots/shoots, how plants orient themselves
Amyloplasts
- starch molecules in the cells of the root tips
- move based on what way gravity is pulling them
Hormone responsible for gravitropism
auxin
How auxin moves in plant (gravitropism)
auxin is evenly distributed until the plant tips over –> auxin builds on one side with most amyloplasts –> roots bend –> plant tries to even out
Wind and touch response
if a plant is exposed to a lot of wind or touch, it has to focus on growing thicker to stay upright and alive (thigmomorphogenesis)
Thigmonastic movement
non-directional, always the same movement, quick response, action potentials
Hypersentitive response
immediate, localized, proteins bind to molecules made by pathogen, proteins signal presence and respond
- stomata close –> produce toxins –> reinforce neighbor cell wall to reduce movement of pathogen –> apoptosis of cell in infected area, try to limit presence and contain pathogen
Systemic acquired resistance
- whole plant/response goes everywhere,
- after hypersensitive response,
- resistance, hormone trigger more broad response,
- primes cells in roots and shoots,
- expression of pathogen-related genes to limit the chance of being infected again
adaptation
long-term
- adapt physical feature to increase fitness
- from
acclimatization
- short-term
- reversible
- based on environmental variations
3 types of tissues
- connective
- muscle
- nervous and epithelial
4 types of connective tissue
- loose
- dense
- fluid
- supporting
Loose connective tissue
- allows expanding
- packing material for organs
Dense connective tissue
- tightly packed
- bones and muscles
- connect tendons and ligaments
Fluid connective tissue
- blood
- cells are surrounded by extra cellular matrix that helps keep shape
Supporting connective tissue
- bones and cartilage
- support vertebrate and protection
- makes up skeletal system
3 types of muscle tissue
- skeletal
- cardiac
- smooth
Skeletal muscle tissue
- attach to bone
- only voluntary
- force movement
- striated cells/rigid
Cardiac muscle tissue
- involuntary
- walls of heart
- branch pattern to get signal from nerves for contraction
- striated cells
smooth muscle tissue
- involuntary
- not striated but have bump
- BVs
- digestive tract
- regulate body functions (BP and digestion)
Nervous and epithelial tissue
- neurons/nerve cell and support cells, transmit electrical signal, energy flows, dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, axon terminal
homeostasis
stability of condition
- chemical and physical
- environment can change
- internal varies slightly
- temperature
- pH
- ion concentration
- set point
3 regulation componests
- sensor
- integrator
- effector
Integrator component
compare to set point and determine if response is needed
effector component
restore to homeostasis
Termoregulation
- radiation
- evaporation
- conduction
- convection
radiation
transfer of heat between things NOT touching
evaporation
heat LOSS, usually through water to help regulate temperature
conduction
transfer of heat WHILE touching
convection
heat exchange between solid and gas (wind)
Endoterm
internally regulated/self regulated
Ectotherm
externally regulated/by environment
Homeotherms
same heat, set to certain heat
poikilotherms
varied heat/setpoint
Nutrients in the body
- carbs
- proteins
- fats
- allow body to synthesis ATP and macronutrients
adaptive radiation
same species, but each feeds on different food items, overall using nearly every food source
- done by evolving mouth parts
Mechanical and chemical factors in digestion
- mechanical = break down as soon as food enters mouth
- enzymes breakdown carbs, lipids, and proteins in body
- salivary amylase
- lingual lipase
Salivary amylase
breaks down carbs in the mouth
Lingual lipase
break down lipids in the mouth
Peristalsis
rhythmic contraction of the esophagus, stimulated by nerve signal, only one way
Stomach digestion
- break down protein only
- everything is partially digested once leave
Stomach acidity
1.5 (by parietal cells)
Stomach hydrochloric acid
helps break down protein and eliminate bacteria, stomach acid
Denaturing of proteins
done is stomach by parietal cells
- proteins pulled apart
Proteases
pepsin, made by chief cells in stomach
- breaks down proteins
Small intestine digestion
- polypeptide chain from stomach –> amino acids –> body can absorb protein
- more accessory organ help
small intestine absorption
- lipids, carbs, proteins in water
- first place absorption happens
Small intestine SA
- SA allows for absorption
- increased by villi and macrovilli
Pancreatic proteases to small intestine
more proteases produced in pancreas –> small intestine –> activated by tripsin –> other proteases activated –> breaks down proteases, DNA, amylase, and lipase –> small intestine –> further broken down
Tripsin
help activates and breaks down proteases, DNA, amylase, and lipase, all go to small intestine and further broken down
mouth
- ingest/digest
- lipids digested with lingual lipase
- carbs digested with salivary amylase
stomach
- digest/chuming
- proteins digested with acidity/pepsin
small intestine
- digest/absorb
- digest lipids with bile salts and pancreatic lipase
- digest carbs with pancreatic amylase
- digest proteins with trypsin and other proteases
- digest nucleic acids with nucleases
- absorb lipids, carbs, and proteins in water
large intestine
- digest/absorb/compact
- digest cellulose with symbiotic bacteria
- absorb water
hyperosmotic
when the concentration of solutes is higher in the environment
- water flows out of tissues into the environment
- seawater
hypoosmotic
when the concentration of solutes is higher in the tissues
- water flows from the environment into the tissues
- freshwater
Aquaporins
channels specifically for water diffusion, speeds up the process of water movement
Nephron structure/kidney function
- renal corpuscle, blood filtration, filter ions, nutrients, waste, and water out
- proximal tubule, reabsorb nutrients, ions, water from 1
- loop of henle, salt and water, gradient with fluid around loop, most reabsorbed
- distal tube, reabsorb as needed by body
- collection duct, may reabsorb water, urea excretion
What happens as kidney filter
everything is dumped out and only the ions, nutrients, and water are reabsorbed
Loop of Henle gradient
reabsorb water and salt, want to keep a difference of 200 in ascending (200 less than outside) by pumping out sodium in ascending and equilibrate in descending
water regulation (ADH)
- controlled by hormones
- done in collecting duct and distal tube
- ADH decreases urine
Increased ADH
- when dehydrated, triggers aquaporin insertion
- ADH –> collecting duct –> aquaporin –> increased water –> peritubular capillary
Partial pressure
- PA + PB + PC = total
- fraction of gas x total
- pressure of one specific gas in a mixture
Vertebrate lung structure
trachea –> bronchi –> bronchioles –> alveoli
trachea
separates from the esophagus and splits into 2 bronchi
bronchi
from trachea, branch into smaller bronchioles
Bronchioles
from bronchi, eventually each size of alveoli
Alveoli
- smallest bronchioles
- tiny air sacs at the end of bronchioles
- diffuse CO2 and O2
surrounded by capillaries - 150M per lung
- fold to increase SA for gas exchange
Negative pressure ventilation
- what humans have
- air is pulled into the body
- pressure in the chest cavity is 5 mmHg less than atmosphere to keep lung from collapsing
- humans adjust pressure based on V when we in/exhale
Ventilation control
- respiratory center is in the brain
What happens when too much CO2 in blood
- CO2 reaches brain –> react/diffuse into cerebrospinal fluid –> cerebrospinal fluid and blood carbon dioxide react with water –> forms carbonic acid –> breaks into hydrogen and bicarbonate
- increased CO2 = increased hydrogen = more acidic blood = decreased pH
- neurons recognize decrease in pH –> increased breathing –> increased O2 to tissues
Blood
connective tissue
Components of blood
cells, extracellular matrix, formed elements (RBCs, WBCs, and platelets)
Functions of blood
- carry O2 and CO2
- carry nutrients
- move waste to kidney/liver
- transport hormone from gland to target
- carry immune cells to infections
Hemoglobin
oxygen carrying protein molecule
Heme
4 chains of polypeptide chain
- O2 binds to heme
- 1 hemoglobin = 4 O2 molecules
PNS categories
- sensory
- motor
- autonomic
- somatic
- sympathetic
- parasympathetic
Sensory PNS
carry info TO CNS
Motor
get info FROM CNS and send to effector cells (muscles and glands)
- autonomic
- somatic
Autonomic
control involuntary response
- sympathetic
- parasympathetic
Somatic
control voluntary, connect to muscle tissue
Sympathetic
fight or flight
Parasympathetic
rest and digest, conserve and restore energy
Flow of info through nervous system and reflexes
- dendrites receive and convert –> axon sends electrical signal –> neurons produce electrical signal (movement)
- sensory neuron gets stimulated –> brain –> interpret –> interneuron –> motor –> skeletal muscle –> pull away from negative stimulus
Na-K pump
- carrier membrane binds with intracellular sodium
- ATP phosphorylates protein with bound sodium
a. ATP –> ADP (1 phosphorus breaks off and binds with protein) - change shape (kick out 3 sodium)
- 2 potassium bind
- pot cause dephosphorylation and change shape back
a. release K+ - complete cycle
steps of AP from stimulus to after refractory period
stimulus->Na channels open (threshold)->more positive (depolarization)->peak forms new AP->membrane potential becomes more negative (repolarization)extra K open-> refractory period/hyperpolarization->Na+-K+ restored
Axon structure
- myelin sheath
- nodes of Ranvier
Myelin sheath
wraps around axon, prevents loss of ions during AP, made of Schwann cells
Nodes of Ranvier
gaps in sheath, have Na and K channels, new AP can be generated
Synapses
how action potentials move from one neuron to another
- tiny gaps between neurons
Steps of synapses
- pre-synaptic cell –> axon terminal –> neurotransmitters in synaptic vesicle –> synaptic cleft (gap) –> receptor for neurotransmitters –> post-synaptic cell
- ap get near cleft –> voltage-gated Ca+ channels open, Ca+ enters pre-synaptic cells –> synaptic vesicle fuse with pre-synaptic and release neurotransmitters –> ion channels in post-synaptic open when neurotransmitters bind with receptor, flow of ions causes change in post-synaptic cells –> ion channels in post-synaptic close when neurotransmitters unbind
Broca’s area
motor speech area, frontal lobe, motor of speaking, form words and being physically able to talk
Wernicke’s area
general interpretation, for understanding words and forming words to respond, temporal
How sound moves through ear
outer ear –> ear cannal –> tympanic membrane –> middle ear small bones –> oval window –> cochlea –> organ of corti –> hair cells –> sensory nerve –> cochlear/auditory nerve
function of semicircular canals
detects rotation and angular acceleration/deceleration
How light moves through eye
light enters cornea –> regulated by iris –> pass through pupil and lens –> cornea and lens focus light on retina –> optic nerve
Type of light receptors
- photoreceptors
- cones and rods
- rhodopsins
Function of rods
can’t see color, sensitive, can be triggered by single photon, rhodopsins
Functions of cones
require more light, allow us to see color, S/M/L wavelengths
S wavelength
blue and purple
M wavelength
green
L wavelength
red
Taste receptors
- chemoreceptor
- epithelial
- have taste pore on apical end and nerve ending on other
- taste molecules bind to pore and send to brain
- taste buds are in papilla
Taste organization
tongue –> papillae (bumps on tongue, taste buds inside) –> taste bud (have receptor cells that connect to nerve fiber –> process different tastes in brain)
How muscles move
- locomotive
- non-locomotive
Contracting/shortening of sarcomere
myosin binds to actin->orientation change->force->slide->to unbind, myosin head binds to ATP->release actin->myosin head returns to original->can bind again
Myosin
2 long polypeptide chains coiled
- each chain has 2 heads at one end with ATP activity
Actin
2 chains coiled together
- tropomyosin
- troponin
Sliding filament theory
results from interaction between actin and myosin filaments generate movement relative to one another
Trigger of muscle contraction
- initiated by AP from motor neuron
- muscle fibers are excitable and depolarized by AP
- opens sodium channels, permitting muscle plasma membrane to generate action potentials
Ca2+ release
Ap → motor neuron → muscle fiber → motor release neurotransmitters → sodium reach fiber → depolarization → Ca2+ released in tissue -> bind to troponin and change its conformation -> pull tropomyosin strands, myosin and actin interact and contract -> Ca2+ returns to sarcoplasmic reticulum
Muscle fiber types
slow and fast
Slow muscle fiber
- more mitochondria
- ATP from cellular respiration
- fatigue slowly
Fast muscle fiber
- less mitochondria
- ATP from glycolysis
- fatigue quickly
Types of skeletal systems
- hydrostatic
- endoskeleton
- exoskeleton
Hydrostatic
- uses pressure and muscles to move
- peristalsis
- filled with fluid with very high pressure
Endoskeleton
- 5 components/functions
- bone
- joints
- cartilage
- ligaments
- tendons
- flexor
- extensor
- calcium
Bones in endoskeleton
hard, extracellular matrix
- calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate
- meet at joint
joint
where 2 bones connect
- allow movement
cartilage
gelatinous matrix
- vary in rigidity
ligaments
- bands of connective tissue
- connect bones to other bones
- stabilize joint
tendon
- connective tissue fiber
- connect to skeletal muscle
Flexor
- decrease joint angle
- bones closer together
Extensor
increase joint angle
Calcium in body
- needed for cell division, muscle contraction, and neurotransmitter release
- osteoclasts will secrete acid into bone to get enough
Exoskeleton
protect and support
Endocrine system
glands –> hormones –> target cells
Gland
produce and release hormones
Hormones
major componests
target cells
cells with specific receptor and causes response, some kind of response if triggered
Classes of signals
- autocrine
- paracrine
- endocrine
- neural
- neuroendocrine
Autocrin
hormones act on the cell that produces them, self-signal, no travel
Paracrine
cells close together, cells travel but don’t go through blood, diffuse locally
Endocrine
gland -> hormone -> blood -> cell
neural
use neurons, 1 neuron sends signal to another NEURON, by neurotransmitters
neuroendocrine
use neurons, neuron released in hormone -> blood -> goes to target cell
hydrophilic
move freely through blood on their own, receptor on the outside of target cell, nothing happens if there is no receptor
lipophilic
have to bind with transport protein to enter lipid membrane, unbinds from transporter when leave blood
- receptor is on the inside
- target cell is activated by lipophilic
Pituitary gland
controlled by neurohormones from hypothalamus
- oversee and regulate other glands with own hormones
- anterior
- posterior
anterior pituitary gland
- controlled by neurohormone from hypothalamus
- main release of hormones that control other glands
- connected to brain via BV
- ACTH
- FSH
- LH
- thyrotropin
- growth hormone
posterior pituitary gland
- doesn’t produce any hormones
- stores hormones from hypothalamus until they are needed
- hypothalamic nerve ending releases neurohormone
sexual animal repro
- 2 animals
- fusion of gametes
- meiosis based
- genetically different offspring
asexual animal repro
- no fusing of gametes
- mitosis based
- genetically identical offspring
- budding
- fission
- parthenogenesis
Budding (asexual)
offspring forms without/on parent, break off and grows on its own, genetically identical
Fission (asexual)
individual split into at least 2 parts, nucleus divides, mitosis, both the same size and fully mature
Parthenogenesis (asexual)
- females produce offspring
- no male gametes
- low genetic diversity
- daphnia
- fertilized = female
- not fertilized = male
3 steps of sexual reproduction
- gametogenesis (how gametes form)
- mating
- fertilization (gametes fuse)
Gametogenesis for sperm
spermatogenesis (1 to 4) = diploid –> mitosis —> differentiation and chromosomes replicate –> primary spermatocyte –> meiosis I –> 2 secondary spermatocytes –> meiosis II –> 4 permatids –> 4 mature sperm
Gametogenesis for egg
oogenesis (1 to 1) = diploid –> mitosis –> differentiation and chromosome replicate –> primary oocyte –> meiosis I –> 1 secondary oocyte and 1 polar body –> meiosis II –> secondary oocyte splits into 1 ootid and 1 polar body, polar body splits into 2 polar bodies –> finish with 3 polar bodies and 1 mature egg
components of mature sperm
- head (surrounded by acrosome enzyme)
- neck (centriole)
- midpiece
- tail
components of mature egg
- yolk (fat and cytoplasm)
- cytoplasm (energy)
- zona pellucida (outer layer)
- plasma membrane (thin, between ZP and cytoplasm)
- corona radiate (very outside, what sperm have to get through)
Male repro components and structures
- spermatogenesis and sperm storage (production = testes; storage = epididymis)
- production of accessory fluids (long and skinny seminal vesicle, circle prostate gland, and tiny bulbourethral gland)
- transport and delivery of gametes
female repro components and structures
- produce and transport egg (production = ovaries; transported –> oviduct –> uterus)
- development of offspring (develop in uterus)
transportation and delivery of sperm
Vas deferens (very long) transports sperm to ejaculatory duct (right after SV) → mix with accessory fluids through seminal vescle/prostate/bulbourethral → semen → reach base of ejaculatory duct → semen enters urethra for release → leaves from same place as urine
Seminal vesicle
on top, release fructose to give chemical energy for sperm movement
Prostate gland
citric acid for sperm nutrients and antibiotic compound to prevent UTI in male reproduction system
Bulbourethral gland
alkaline mucus to neutralize acidity in urethra, help get through female tract which has a low pH/acidity
Steps of fertilization
- eggs and sperm meet in oviduct
- sperm have to compete
- fusion must be limited to single sperm because each egg and sperm have 1/2 of chromosomes
Prevention of multiple sperm fusion
- temporary
- physical barrier
temporary prevention of sperm fusion
immediately after sperm-egg fusion
- depolarization of egg membrane –> prevents others from entering
Physical barrier of sperm fusion
- after fusion
- Ca2+ ions released in egg –> cortical granules below surface, fuse with membrane –> release contents of granule, including proteas that digest perm receptors (physical change)
Embryo development
- blastocyst
- trophoblast
- blastocoel
- gastrulation
Blastocyst
mass of cells inside egg
trophoblast
outside, thin layer of exterior cells
- becomes placenta
blastocoel
fluid filled cavity inside
gastrulation
cell movement
- ectoderm
- mesoderm
- endoderm
ectoderm
outside skin
- cornea
- lens
- epithelial
mesoderm
middle skin
- organ system
- muscle
- heart
endoderm
inner skin
- epithelial lining
- organ lining
key structures of orangogenesis
- notochord
- neural tube
- somites
notochord
under tube, cartilage rod that supports body
neural tube
develops into brain and spinal cord, formed by notochord
somites
paired
- make of mesodermal cells
- cell adhesion
- 4 areas that break apart during organogenesis
- each develop into something
Hormones and roles of hypothalamus (GnRH)
- homeostasis
- GnRH is sent to anterior, then anterior makes LH/FSH
- hypothalamus –> anterior pituitary gland
hormones and roles of pituitary
- LH/FSH
- stimulate reproductive glands to produce sex hormones, stimulate gametogenesis
LH effect on males
cause testosterone production
- Leydig cells = make testosterone
FSH effect on males
stimulate sperm production
- Sertoli cells = sperm production
LH effect on females
secrete estrogen and progesterone to create secondary sex characteristics
FSH effect on females
estrogen secretion, growth of follicles and eggs/oogenesis
Innate immunity
everything has it
- ready to respond to any pathogen (broad)
- fast
adaptive immunity
- only vertebrates
- must be activated
- tailored response to specific pathogen
- after exposure
- after respond once it can do it more specifically the next time
- more efficient
- slower
Leukocytes
- monocyte
- eosinophil
- basophil
- lymphocyte
- neutrophil
Monocyte
clean up dead cells in tissue
- don’t respond to pathogen
eosinophil
- fighting bacteria
- response to parasite infection
- overreact to pollen (allergy)
Basophil
important in mounting non-specific immune response to pathogen
- help build up response
lymphocyte
B and T cells
neutrophil
- kill via phagocytosis
- 1st responders to invader
- send alert to signals
Inflammation
- immediate response to pathogen
- pathogen enters body –> platelets release protein to form clot –> wounded tissue and macrophages release chemokines (chems that signal to tell body of invader) –> mast cells secrete messenger chemicals, dilation of BVs –> neutrophils move to infection site, destroy cells of pathogen
adaptive immune system characteristics
- custom response based on particular invader
- produce antibody (protein) that is very specifically bound to antigen
- can respond to endless array of antibodies
Functions of B cells
produce specific antibodies which bind to antigen
activation of B cells
a. B cells recognize invader and bind on outside BCR
• Process antigens and present on surface
b. B cell stimulates helper t cell
c. B cell is activated by helper t cell to rapidly divide
• Either memory or effector
d. B cells get to work
functions of T cells
recognize and destroy infected host cells
activation of t cells
- Dendritic cell ingests antigen
- Enzymes break antigen protein into peptide fragments
- Peptide fragments loaded onto MHC protein
- MHC-peptide transported to surface
- MHC protein presents peptide fragment to T cell
B cell receptors
- antigen-specific
- protein/polypeptides
- light and heavy chains
B cell specificity
- constant is the same for all receptors
- variable regions on receptors change
T cell receptors
- alpha and beta chain
- don’t bind with antigen directly
- require other cells to recognize antigen→ bind → process → present to t cell → t cells can be activated
specificity
- different genetics
- unique amino acid in variable region (allows to bind to specific epitopes)
- limitless number of RBCs/TCR/antibodies
Cell mediated
- intercellular
- activation of phagocytosis and cytotoxic t cells
humoral
- extracellular
- hasn’t affected cells
- production of antibodies
- secreted into blood and lymph and bind
- opsonization
- neutralization
- agglutination
- co-stimulation of complement proteins
opsonization
produce large amounts of antibodies that coat pathogen, increases phagocytosis (neutrophil absorb and destroy)
neutralization
coated pathogens blocked from infecting host cell, turn away
agglutination
clumping of pathogens, still coated in antibodies, can’t infect
- each antigen binds with 2 pathogens
co-stimulating protein
- activate lethal proteins
- assemble antibody-antigen complex form lethal holes in pathogen membranes
- pore-forming protein = poke holes
- apoptosis protein = cause cell death
How immune response and vaccines work
- secondary immune response
- mimics an infection to prepare immune system and create daughter memory cells and fighting cells
secondary immune response
used if infected again, faster and more efficient
Types of vaccines
- subunit
- inactivated
- attenuated
Subunit vaccine
contains only antigens from pathogen, part of pathogen but not the entire pathogen itself
- Hep B
inactivated vaccine
dead/damaged by chemicals, doesn’t cause infection but have antigens
- polio
attenuated
live, complete viral particles that can infect cells, cultured of species other than normal host, adapt to atypical cells, cannot quickly replicate in normal cells
- smallpox
modified roots
- anchor = hold stem to structure
- prop = stabilize
- pneumatophores = gas exchange
- storage
total essential plant nutrients
17
5 stages of germination
- radicle = embryo root, very first
- cotyledon = first leaves from germination
- hypocotyle = part of stem under cotyledon
- epicotyle = above cotyledon
hormone for flower sequencing/dying
ethylene
increased CO2 ___ pH
deceases
How blood enters heart
superior/inferior vena cava
parts of complex reflex arc
- sensory
- motor
- interneurons
After neurotransmitters release __
Ca2+ is released
