Exam 3 review Flashcards
hyperosmotic
when the concentration of solutes is higher in the environment , so water flows out of the tissues into the environment (seawater)
hyposmotic
when the concentration of solutes is higher in the tissues, so water flows from the environment into the tissues (freshwater)
Osmoregulation in marine environment
lose water by osmosis and gain electrolytes by diffusion
Osmoregulation in freshwater environment
gain water by osmosis and lose electrolytes by diffusion
Aquaporins
channels specifically for water, speed up the process of water movement
Spiracles
close to decrease water loss by evaporation in insects
Nephron structure/kidney function
- renal corpuscle, blood filtration, filter ions, nutrients, waste, and water out
- proximal tubule, reabsorb nutrients, ions, water from step 1 into blood
- loop of Henle, in medulla of nephron, gradient with fluid around loop, most reabsorbed water and salt
- distal tube, reabsorb what is needed by body
- collection duct, may reabsorb water, urea excretion
As kidneys filter
everything gets dumped out and the body reabsorbs what it needs
Loop of Henle gradient
want to keep a difference of 200 in ascending (200 less than outside) by pumping out sodium in ascending and equilibrate in descending
water regulation (ADH)
- controlled by hormones, done in collecting duct and distal tube
- ie Antidiuretic hormone -> decreases urine and triggers aquaporin insertion
- ADH->collecting duct->aquaporin->increase water->peritubular capillary
Gases we exchange and how
- oxygen = inhale
- carbon dioxide = exhale
partial pressure
pressure of one specific gas in a mixture
How to calculate pressure
Ptotal=Pa+Pb+Pc
percent of gas x total pressure
Animal adaptation for O2
- gills
- operculum
- ram ventilation
- spiracles
- trachea
gills
larger SA for gas diffusion
operculum
cover gills, move back and forth to help pull water over gills
ram ventilation
no operculum, gill slits, have to constantly move to get oxygen, open mouth
spiracles
openings on the outside of the body, can close to decrease water loss, have no lungs, not through blood
insect trachea
branch and carry gas everywhere, place gas exchange with tissue, CO2 out through trachea
vertebrate lung structure
trachea–>bronchi–>bronchioles–>alveoli
trachea
branch away from esophagus into 2 bronchi
bronchi
branch into smaller bronchioles
bronchioles
spread in lung and branch into alveoli
alveoli
smallest bronchioles, allow for gas exchange between lungs and capillaries, sacs full of air
How does gas exchange between respiratory and circulatory
alveoli are surrounded by capillaries and have folds to increase SA, they exchange CO2 and O2 with capillaries by diffusion
negative pressure ventilation
- what humans have
- air is pulled into the body when the diaphragm contracts (volume increase)
- pressure of the chest cavity is less than atmosphere to keep lungs from collapsing
- humans adjust pressure based on volume when we in/exhale
ventilation control
- controlled by brain
- increased CO2 increases hydrogen which decreases pH
- breathing is increased
- partial pressure of CO2 increases with exercise
blood
connective tissue
components of blood
cell, formed elements, and matrix
- RBC
- WBC
- platelets
- all from red bone marrow
functions of blood
- carry O2 and CO2
- carry nutrients
- move waste to kidney/liver
- transport hormone from gland to target
- carry immune cells to infections
Hemoglobin
oxygen carrying protein molecule, 4 sections linked together, each chain has heme
heme
what O2 binds to, 4 in each hemoglobin
cooperative binding
- one heme binds with O2, the hemoglobin changed shape so that the other 3 heme are more likely to bind
- makes it more likely for other heme to gain or lose O2
Heart structure and function, how B flows through
deoxygenated->superior/inferior vena cava-> right atrium->right ventricle->out pulmonary artery->lungs->oxygenated->pulmonary vein->left atrium->left ventricle->out aorta to body
neuron structure
- dendrites
- cell body
- axon
- axon terminals
dendrites
first to pick up chemical signal, convert chemical signal to electrical
cell body
gets electrical signal and sends it to axon
axon
long, reaches axon terminal
axon terminal
connects to either another dendrite or to a muscle
CNS vs PNS
- CNS = ganglia, brain and spinal cord, process signal and send response, protected by bone
- PNS = everything outside CNS, sensor and motor
Categories of PNS
- sensory
- motor
2a. somatic
2b. autonomic
2ba. sympathetic
2bb. parasympathetic
sensory
get stimulus and send TO CNS
motor
get stimulus FROM CNS and send it to body, reaction, end in muscle
somatic
part of motor, voluntary, connect to muscle tissue
autonomic
involuntary
sympathetic
part of autonomic, fight or flight
parasympathetic
part of autonomic, rest or digest, conserve and restore energy
flow of info from nervous system and reflexes
sensory neuron get stimulated->carry info to brain->process->interneuron->motor->effect
electrochemical gradient
combination of the electrical and concentration gradient
way electrochemical gradient gets resting potential
2 potassium move into the cell and 3 sodium move out, causing negative resting potential
How Na-K pump works
- carrier membrane binds with intracellular sodium
- ATP phosphorylate protein bind with sodium, changes shape
- change shape (kick out 3 sodium)
- 2 potassium bind and come in
- kick out potassium
- change shape back, K is released into cell, cycle complete
steps of AP from stim to after refractory
stimulus->Na channels open (threshold)->more positive (depolarization)->peak forms new AP->membrane potential becomes more negative (repolarization)extra K open-> refractory period/hyperpolarization->Na+-K+ restored
Axon structure
- myelin sheath
- nodes of ranvier
myelin sheath
wraps around axon, prevents loss of ions during AP, made of Schwann cells, allows faster transmission of signals
Nodes of Ranvier
gaps in sheath, have Na and K channels, new AP can be generated
Synapses
how action potentials move from one neuron to another, tiny gaps between neurons
diencephalon
information about environment to trigger homeostasis, hypothalamus control homeostasis, thalamus
brain stem
control involuntary processes
4 brain lobes
- frontal
- parietal
- occipital
- temporal
occipital
vision, in the back of brain
temporal
auditory, memory, speech, temples
Broca’s area
frontal lobe, motor of speaking, form words and being physically able to talk
Wernicke’s area
understanding words and responding, temporal
Lateralization of brain function
some functions are specific to one side of the brain, each hemisphere controls the opposite side
Split brain
corpus callosum is cut, normal function until task requires both hemispheres
How senses processed
stimulation
transduction
transmission
interpretation
how senses interpreted
highly specific receptor cells, signals are sent to specific areas of the brain
location of somatic receptors in edi/dermis
- merkel’s disk = epidermis
- meissner’s corpuscle = boarder
- ruffini’s ending = middle of skin, two leaves
- pacinian corpuscle = deep, big circle
auditory structures and how sound moves through ear
tympanic membrane->cochlea->cochlear nerve
function of semicircular canals
detect rotation and angular acceleration/deceleration by endolymph moving hair cells inside ampulla
simple vs. complex eyes
- simple = structure with 1 lens, focus light onto photoreceptor
- complex = thousand of ommatidida that each send info about a small piece of visual field, not all cohesive
How light moves through eyes
light enters cornea->regulated by iris->pass through pupil and lens->cornea and lens focus light on retina
type of receptor of eyes
photoreceptor
function of rods and cones
- rods = detect light, can be triggered by single photon, have rhodopsin, see in dark
- cones = detect color, require more light
wavelengths of color vision
- different WV allow to see different colors
- small=blue
- medium=green
- large=red
Taste receptors
- epithelial that are inside taste buds
- have a taste pore with microvilli at one end and connect to nerve fiber with other
- process different tastes and send info to brain by nerve fiber
how we smell
scent molecule binds to receptor in epithelial lining (hair)->signal travels through olfactory receptor to olfactory nerve->reaches olfactory bulb->converted from chemical to AP->sends signal to brain
locomotive
movement relative to environment
non-locomotive
movement of part of the animal relative to other parts
how muscles move
- locomotive
- non-locomotive
contraction/shortening of sarcomere
myosin binds to actin->orientation change->force->slide->to unbind, myosin head binds to ATP->release actin->myosin head returns to original->can bind again
sliding filament theory
results from interaction between actin and myosin filaments generate movement relative to one another
myosin
2 long polypeptide chains coiled, each chain has 2 heads at one end with ATP activity
- myosin molecule->myosin filament->bind with actin->head bends->contract
actin
- 2 chains coiled together
- tropomyosin
- troponins
tropomyosin
around actin chain, protein used for contraction
troponins
groups of proteins that regulate muscular contraction, skeletal and cardiac
What triggers contraction
initiated by AP from motor neuron
Ca2+ release
- bind to troponin-> change conformation->pull tropomyosin strands away->expose binding sites->myosin and actin interact->Ca2+ return to sarcoplasmic reticulum
- released from sarcoplasmic reticulum at depolarization
skeletal muscle fiber types
- regulate contractions
- slow
- fast
slow muscle fiber
red, more hemoglobin, ATP from cellular respiration, more mitochondria, slow speed, fatigues slowly
fast muscle fiber
white, ATP form glycolysis, less mitochondria, fast speed, faster fatigue
muscle organization
- parallel = sarcomeres are in rows, longer length
- pennate = sarcomeres are side by side, smaller length change, larger amount of sarcomeres, larger force, sarcomeres don’t shorten as much
function of skeletal system
- protection
- posture
- re-extending shortened muscles
- transfer muscle forces
types of skeletal system
- hydrostatic
- endoskeleton
- exoskeleton
hydrostatic
use pressure and muscles to move, peristalsis, can alternate muscle use and push fluid
- longitudinal and circular
- continuous movement
- circular muscle contract->pressure increases->fluid moves out
peristalsis
continuous muscle contraction to move fluid
endoskeleton
- bone
- joints
- cartilage
- ligaments
- tendons
- flexors
- extensors
- calcium
bone
hard, extracellular matrix, dense, calcium phosphate, carbonate, meet at joint
joint
where two bones connect
cartilage
gelatinous matrix, rigidity varies
ligaments
bone to bone, stabilize joint
tendons
connect bone to muscle, connective tissue fiber, transmit muscle force to bone
- contract->tendon pulls bone
flexor
decrease joint of angle, bone closer together
extensors
increase joint angle
calcium in body
needed for cell division, muscle contraction, and neurotransmitter release
exoskeleton
protect and support
bats ability to fly
echolocation/high frequency sound waves that bounce off object are are detected by ears
pros of exoskeleton
increase support and protection
cons of exoskeleton
doesn’t grow with body so have to use energy to molt
how calcium leads to osteoporosis
osteoclasts secret acid and break down bone to get correct amount of Ca+ in blood
oxygen capacity in water factors
- depth
- solubility
- temperature (increase temp=decrease O2)
- solutes
- photosynthetic organism
- air bubbles
Types of synapses
- chemical = release neurotransmitter that cause response
- electrical = gap junctions
2 main muscle filaments
- myosin
- actin
ion most abundant outside cell at resting potential
Na+
ion most abundant inside cell at resting potential
K+
positive pressure ventilation
increases pressure in oral cavity
- force air into lungs
types of neurons
- motor
- sensory
- interneurons
open circulatory system
- nothing containing blood
- blood has direct contact with tissues
declarative memories
available to consciousness
nondeclarative memories
not available to consciousness
- motor skills
why O2 move from here to tissue
diffuse because there is less O2 in tissue than there is in B, so move into tissue from blood
buccal pumping
open and close operculum to move water over gills
ram ventilation
no operculum, gill slits, so have to constantly move to get oxygen
tone
determined by location of hair cells that are stimulated along membrane
LocalizaTion
compare Loudness and Timing of input between ears
reason why air on Mt. Everest is thinner
fewer molecules per unit volume of air
Limbic system
emotions, memory, instinct, and physiological drive
parts of brain in limbic system
- hypothalamus
- hippocampus
- amygdala
how is information organized in the CNS
topographically
- parietal = sensory
- frontal = motor
