Final Review Flashcards
Different level of structural organization
Atoms, molecules, cells, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
- chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal level
Integumentary
Protects body, regulates temp
Skeletal
Supports body, protects organs
Muscular
Allow movement, maintains posture
Nervous
Controls body activities, respond to stimuli
Endocrine
Regulates body functions through hormones
Cardiovascular
Transports nutrients and waste
Lymphatic
Defends against infection
Respiratory
Supplies oxygen, removes carbon dioxide
Digestive
Breaks ↓ food, absorbs nutrients
Urinary
Eliminates waste, regulates water balance
Reproductive
Produce offspring
Home stasis
Maintenance of a stable internal env’t despite changes in external conditions
Negative feedback
Reduce output or activity to return to a set point (body temp.)
Positive feedback
↑ the output or activity (blood clotting)
Anatomical position
Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward
Distal
Farther from the point of attachment
Superior
Above or higher
Inferior
Below or lower
Anterior and posterior
Anterior: front, posterior: back
Medial and lateral
Medial: towards midline, lateral: away from midline
Proximal
Closer to point of attachment
Sagittal:
Frontal:
Transverse:
Sagittal- divides body into left and right
Frontal - divides body into anterior and posterior
Transverse - divides body into superior and inferior
Dorsal cavity
Contains brain and spinal cord
Ventral cavity
Contains thoracic and abdominopeltic cavities
Thoracic cavity
Contains heart and lungs
Abdommopelvic cavity
Digestive organs, kidneys, bladder
Smallest unit of any element
Atom
Where are protons and neutrons found?
Nucleus
Where are electrons found?
Orbit the nucleus
Major elements of the human body?
Oxygen, Carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
Electron shells
Energy levels where electrons orbit
Rule of 8
Atoms are stable with 8 electrons in their outer shell
What do electrons determine?
Bond formation
Ionic bonds
Involve the transfer of electrons
Covalent bonds
Involve the sharing of electrons
What are negative/positive ions called?
- Anions
+ cations
Non-polar/ polar covalent bonds
Non-polar = share electrons equally
Polar = share electrons unequally
Single/ double bonds
Single =share one pair of electrons
Double = share 2 pairs
Hydrogen bonds
Weak bonds between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom
What do hydrogen bonds affect?
Shape and properties of molecules
Acid and base pH
Acid= ↓ than 7
Base =↑ than 7
What do strong acids/bases dissociate completely in?
In water; weak acids/bases don’t
4 major categories of organic molecules
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nuclei acids
Carbohydrates
Provide energy (glucose)
Lipids
Store energy, form cell membranes (fats)
Proteins
Catalyze reactions, provide structure (enzymes)
Nuclei acids
Store genetic info (dna,rna)
Building blocks of proteins
Amino acids
What enzymes catalyze?
Biochemical reactions
Forming of protein shape:
Folding and bonding of amino acids
Desaturation
Loss of shape due to external stress (heat)
Cells
Basic unit of life
Cell theory
All living things are composed of cells; and all cells come from pre-existing cells
Basic parts of a cell:
Plasma membrane,cytoplasm,nucleus
Plasma membrane
Regulates the movement of substances in and out the cell
Components of cell membrane:
Phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol, carbohydrates
Integral proteins
Span the membrane and assist in transport and communication
Sodium- potassium pump
Protein that pumps out of cells and potassium into cells, using ATP
Cilia
Hair-like structures that move fluid across cell surfaces
Flagella
Tail-like structures that propel cells
Nucleus
Contains genetic material
Mitochondria
Produce energy (ATP)
Ribosomes
Synthesize proteins
Endoplasmic reticular
Synthesize proteins and lipids
Golgi apparatus
Modifies and packaging proteins
Lysosomes
Digest cellular waste
Peroxisones
Break ↓ fatty acids
Cytoskeleton
Provides structure and support
Passive transport
Movement of substances w/o energy (diffusion and osmosis)
Active transport
Movement of substances w/ energy
(Sodium potassium, endocytosis, exoctosis)
Phase of cell cycle:
Interphase: cell growth and DNA replication
Mitosis: division of nucleus
Cytokinesis: division of cytoplasm
Where is DNA replicated?
During the S phase of interphase, it’s necessary for cell division
Enzymes involved n DNA replication?
DNA polymerase.
Semi conservative replication
Each new DNA molecule has one old and one new strand
Steps of protein synthesis
Transcription: DNA to mRNA in the nucleus
Translation: mRNA to protein in cytoplasm
DNA
Double - stranded and contains deoxyribose
RNA
Single-stranded and contains ribose
Enzymes and molecules involved n protein syntheses
. RNA, polymerase, ribosomes, tRNA,mRNA
Introns
Non-coding regions of RNA
Exons
Coding regions
Tissues
Groups of cells that work together to perform a specific function
4 categories of tissues
Epithelial, connective, muscles and nervous tissues
Function of epithelial
Covers body surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands: protection, absorption, secretion
Function of connective
Supports, protects, binds other tissues; includes bone, blood, adipose
Function of muscle
Produces movement; includes skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscle
Function of nervous
Transmits impulses; includes neurons and glial cells
Location of epithelial
Skin, lining of GI tract, glands
Location of connective
Bone, blood, tehdohs, fat
Location of muscle
Heart, skeletal muscles, walls of hollow organs
Location of nervous
Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Different cell types of epithelial
Squamous, cuboidal, columnar cells, protection, absorption
Different cell types of connective
Fibroblasts, macrophages, adipocytes, support, defense, storage
Different cell types of muscle
Myocytes; contraction
Different cell types of nervous
Neurons, glial cells, signal transmission, support
Ground-substance
Gel-like material in ct.; supports cells
Fibers
Collagen, elastic, reticular; provide strength, elasticity
Matrix
Combo, of ground substance and fibers; supports tissue structure
Matrix
Combo, of ground substance and fibers; supports tissue structure
Types of cell-to-cell junctions
Tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions
Basic types of body membranes
Mucous, serous, cutaneous, synovial
Types of glands;
Exocrine (secrete via ducts), endocrine (secrete hormones into blood)
Lacunae
Small spaces in bone/cartilage housing cells
Basic steps of tissue repair
Inflammation, proliferation, remodeling
Functions of skin
Protection, regulation, sensation
Layers of skin
Epidermis, dermis, hypodermic
Structures in epidermis
Keratinocytes, melanocytes
Strectuks in dermis
Blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, glands
Structures in hypodermic
Adipose tissue
What is the hypodermic?
Subcutaneous layer; insulates, cushions
Func of epidermis
Barrier, UV protection
Func of dermis
Supports nourishment
Func. Of hypodermic
Insulation, shock absorption
Why are burns dangerous ?
Due to fluid loss, infection risk
Types of skim cancer
Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cull caremoma, melanoma
Hair/nails formation
Keratinization; derivatives of epidermis
Different cells m skin tissues
Keratinocytes (protection), melanocyte (pigment), langerhans cells immune response)
Axial skeleton
Skull, vertebral column, rib cabe,
Appendicular: limbs, girdles
Func of bone
’ Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation
Structure of long bone
Diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphases, medullary cavity
Periosteum
Outer layer: protection, nourishment
Endosteum
Inner layer: bone growth, repair
Cells in bone formation / remodeling
Osteoblasts (build bone), osteoclasts (break ↓ bone), osteocytes (maintain bone)
Microscopic anatomy of compact bone
Osteons, lamellar, canaliculi, central canal
How does stress affect bone remodeling
↑ bone density; lack of stress leads to bone loss
Basic steps of fracture repair
Hematoma formation, fibrocartilinagaus callus formation, bony callus formation, bone remodeling
Locations and features of vertebrae
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccyx
Axis/atlas
First 2 cervical vert.: support skull, allow head movement
Basic articulations and bones of appendicular skeleton
Shoulder, hip, limbs
Functional categories of joints
Synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly moveable) diarthroses (freely moveable)
Structural categories of joints
Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial; sub-categories include sutures, symphyses
Anatomy of synovial joint
Particular cartilage, synovial membrane, joint cavity, ligaments; all are alarthroses
Stability of synovial joints
Ligaments, muscle tone, joint capsule
3 types of muscle tissue
Skeletal: voluntary and striated
Cardiac: involuting and striated
Smooth: involuntary and non -striated
Ct. Sheaths include:
Epimysium ( surrounds entire muscle)
Perimysium (su rrounds fascicle)
Endomystem surrounds indluual muscle fibers
Fascicles
Bundle of muscle fibers
Tendons (dense regular ct.)
Strong, fibrous connectin tissues that connect muscle to bone
Aponeuroses (dense regular ct.)
Flat, broad tendons
Aponeuroses (dense regular ct.)
Flat, broad tendons
Origin
Fixed attachments point of muscle
Insertion
Moveable attachment point
Fibroblasts
cells that create and maintain connective tissue, which supports and connects organs and tissues in the body