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Anatomy 231 > FINAL LECTURE EXAM > Flashcards

FINAL LECTURE EXAM Flashcards

- Digestive System - Urinary/ Renal System - Male Reproductive System - Female Reproductive System - Embryonic Development

1
Q

What are the functions of the digestive system?

A

1) Ingestion

2) Digestion

3) Absorption

4) Elimination

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2
Q

What type of digestion is this?

  • Physically breaking down food
  • Begins with chewing
A

Mechanical Digestion

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3
Q

What type of digestion is this?

  • Breaking down large molecules into smaller ones
  • Begins with cooking food
A

Chemical Digestion

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4
Q

One open tract/tube from the mouth to the anus

A

Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract

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5
Q

What are the accessory organs?

A

liver, pancreas, gallbladder

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6
Q

What is peristalsis?

A

one-way movement of food

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7
Q

What is segmentation?

A

back-and-forth movement of food

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8
Q

Is segmentation chemical or mechanical digestion?

A

mechanical

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9
Q

What tissue is the oral cavity lined with and why?

A

non-keratinized stratified squamous ET to protect from abrasion

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10
Q

What type of muscle is the tongue made of?

A

skeletal muscle

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11
Q

What are the 3 salivary glands?

A

1) parotid

2) sublingual

3) submandibular

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12
Q

What are the functions of saliva?

A

1) produces lysosome to kill bacteria

2) lubricates food

3) contains amylase to digest starch

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13
Q

We have 32 adult teeth and 20 deciduous teeth.

___ incisors

___ canine teeth

___ bicuspid teeth

___ molars

A

12 incisors

4 canine teeth

8 bicuspid teeth

12 molars

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14
Q

What tissue is the gingiva made of?

A

non-keratinized stratified squamous ET

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15
Q

What is the strongest substance in the body?

A

enamel

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16
Q

What type of tissue is dentin made of?

A

bone tissue

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17
Q

What is the function of periodontal ligaments?

A

connect the tooth to the socket

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18
Q

What is the esophageal hiatus?

A

the hole the esophagus goes through to get through the diaphragm

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19
Q

What are the functions of the stomach?

A

1) stores food

2) mechanical digestion

3) chemical digestion for proteins

3) kills bacteria

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20
Q

Why doesn’t the cardiac sphincter close completely?

A

to allow for vomiting

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21
Q

Which part of the stomach only gets filled if you eat a lot?

A

fundus

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22
Q

What part of the stomach controls what goes into the small intestine?

A

pyloric sphincter

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23
Q

What is the top of the small intestine called?

A

duodenum

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24
Q

What are rugae and what is their function?

A
  • folds of the stomach
  • stretch out and provide surface area
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25
Q

What are the functions of gastric pits?

A

Produce HCl, new cells, and hormones

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26
Q

What is the mucosal epithelium in the stomach made of and why?

A

simple columnar ET made entirely of goblet cells which produce mucus to protect from stomach acid

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27
Q

What type of muscle is the muscularis externa in the stomach made of? What is its function?

A
  • smooth muscle
  • peristalsis and segmentation to produce chyme
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28
Q

What are the functions of the small intestine?

A

1) digestion

2) absorption

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29
Q

What are the 3 parts of the small intestine?

A

1) duodenum

2 jejunum

3) ileum

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30
Q

What is the function of the duodenum?

A
  • neutralizes stomach acid
  • receives secretions from the accessory organs
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31
Q

What is the function of the jejunum?

A
  • where most digestion occurs (chemical and mechanical)
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32
Q

What is the function of lymph nodes in the ileum?

A

to protect from bacteria

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33
Q

What does the ileum absorb?

A

everything but water and lipids

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34
Q

What are plique circularis?

What are they synonymous with?

A
  • big folds in the small intestine
  • rugae in the stomach
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35
Q

What is the function of villi in the small intestine?

A

increase surface area

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36
Q

What are microvilli in the small intestine?

A

individual cells that sit on top of villi

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37
Q

What are the functions of the large intestine?

A

1) stores feces

2) absorbs water and lipids

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38
Q

What are the functions of bacteria in the large intestine?

A

1) protect from disease

2) produce essential vitamins (Vitamin K)

3) reduce inflammation

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39
Q

What is the function of the hepatic artery?

A

to bring oxygenated blood from the heart

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40
Q

What is the function of the hepatic portal vein?

A

carries blood from the digestive system to get filtered in the liver

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41
Q

What do the hepatic veins empty into?

A

inferior vena cava

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42
Q

What is the only organ in the body that regenerates?

A

liver

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43
Q

What are the functions of the liver?

A

1) Makes bile

2) Makes cholesterol

3) Detoxifies poisons in blood

4) Makes all blood proteins except for antibodies

5) Removes old erythrocytes

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44
Q

What is the function of bile and how does it work?

A
  • emulsifies fat
  • acts as a surfactant to break up fat
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45
Q

What is the function of the gallbladder?

A

stores and concentrates extra bile

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46
Q

What does the common bile duct empty into?

A

the duodenum at the sphincter of oddi

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47
Q

What things make up the hepatic portal triad?

A

1) arteriole

2) venule

3) bile duct

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48
Q

What are heptaic sinusoids and their function?

A
  • discontinuous capillaries
  • remove old erythrocytes
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49
Q

What is the function of hepatocytes?

A

make bile from hemoglobin, bilirubin, and cholesterol

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50
Q

What are Kupffer Cells and their functions?

A
  • macrophages
  • destroy erythrocytes and release hemoglobin
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51
Q

What organs does the peritoneal cavity contain?

A

stomach, liver, intestines

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52
Q

Where is the retroperitoneal cavity located and what does it contain?

A
  • behind the peritoneal cavity
  • kidneys
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53
Q

Where is the infraperitoneal cavity and what does it contain?

A
  • below the peritoneal cavity
  • uterus and bladder
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54
Q

What is the function of the Lesser Omentum?

A

connects the liver to the stomach

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55
Q

What is the function of the Greater Omentum?

A

connects the stomach to the transverse colon

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56
Q

What is a mesentary?

A

what comes off the parietal peritoneum to attach it to the visceral peritoneum

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57
Q

What are caries?

How do they occur?

What can they become?

A
  • areas of enamel being broken down
  • food gets stuck in teeth → bacteria enter and produce acids which degrade the enamel
  • can become cavities without regular brushing
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58
Q

What is a cavity and how is it treated?

A
  • a carie that continues growing
  • treated with a filling
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59
Q

What is a root canal and how is it treated?

A
  • occurs when bacteria enters the pulp of the tooth
  • treated by getting cleaned. filled, and crowned
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60
Q

What is gingivitis and how does it occur?

What can it lead to?

A
  • inflammation of the gingiva
  • occurs when bacteria gets between the tooth and gums
  • can lead to periodontitis if untreated
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61
Q

Periodontitis is the leading cause of tooth loss. What is it?

A

When you start to lose periodontal ligaments

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62
Q

What is a gastric ulcer?

How can it cause internal bleeding?

What is it caused by?

A
  • when stomach acid burns a hole in the lining of the stomach
  • ET gets destroyed so the underlying CT is exposed, which contains many blood vessels
  • normally caused by an infection
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63
Q

What is a hiatal hernia?

What causes it?

Signs and symptoms?

A
  • occurs when the stomach pops through the esophagus
  • caused by elastic fibers in the diaphragm weakening with age
  • presents with bad heartburn and acid reflux
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64
Q

What is diarrhea?

A

when peristalsis occurs too quickly, resulting in watery feces

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65
Q

What is constipation?

A

when peristalsis occurs too slowly, resulting in not enough water in feces

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66
Q

What is appendicitis and how is it treated?

A
  • inflammation of the appendix, it closes its opening
  • treated with an appendectomy
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67
Q

What is peritonitis and how is it treated?

A
  • occurs when the appendix bursts and bacteria enters the peritoneal cavity
  • can be fatal
  • treated by flushing the peritoneal cavity with antibiotics
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68
Q

What is diverticulitis?

Signs and symptoms?

A
  • inflammation of diverticula
  • presents with pain, constipation or diarrhea, and cramping
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69
Q

What are diverticula?

A
  • small pouches all over the colon (LI)
  • they have large openings so they don’t burst
  • not all people have them
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70
Q

What is colitis?

What causes it?

Examples?

A
  • inflammation of the colon
  • most cases are autoimmune, some are due to an imbalance of bacteria in the colon
  • Chron’s Disease and IBS
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71
Q

Why is colon cancer becoming the deadliest form of cancer?

A

because lung cancer is less prevalent

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72
Q

What is a colonoscopy?

A
  • how colon cancer is prevented
  • the colon is checked for polyps, they are removed if found
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73
Q

How is colon cancer detected?

A

through a fecal sample which checks for cancerous cells

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74
Q

What are gallstones?

Why are they so painful?

Treatment?

A
  • concentrated bile that forms crystals
  • painful because they block the cystic duct
  • treated by removing the gallbladder
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75
Q

What causes jaundice?

A

anything that damages the liver

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76
Q

What is neonatal jaundice?

Treatment?

A
  • yellowing of the skin due to bile being released in blood
  • occurs when the liver can’t keep up with the amount of erythrocytes
  • treated with phototherapy → the UV fixes the yellowing of the skin
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77
Q

What is cirrhosis and how does it occur?

What is it caused by?

A
  • when liver tissue is replaced with scar tissue
  • occurs when liver lobules get damaged due to an overuse of toxins or hepatitis
  • the liver can’t regenerate in areas with scar tissue
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78
Q

What are the functions of the liver?

A

1) filters blood and removes wastes in urine

2) regulates ion concentration → regulates blood pH

3) Regulates the amount of water in blood

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79
Q

What is the function of the ureters?

What tissue are they made of and why?

What is the function of the muscularis externa?

A
  • drain kidneys
  • transitional ET for stretch
  • allows for peristalsis which prevents urine from backing up into the kidneys
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80
Q

What is the function of the urinary bladder?

What is the trigone?

What tissue is it made of and why?

A
  • what the ureters empty into
  • the triangular base of the bladder
  • transitional ET for stretch
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81
Q

What is the detrusor muscle and what type of muscle is it?

A
  • smooth muscle that starts contracting as the bladder fills
  • involuntary, gives you the urge to urinate
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82
Q

What is the function of the urethra?

How long is the female urethra?

How long is the male urethra?

A
  • drains the urinary bladder
  • 4cm
  • 20cm
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83
Q

What type of muscle is the internal urethral sphincter made of?

A
  • smooth muscle (involuntary)
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84
Q

What type of muscle is the external urethral sphincter made of?

A
  • skeletal muscle (voluntary)
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85
Q

What is the function of the renal capsule?

What tissue is it made of?

A
  • physically protects kidney
  • dense irregular connective tissue
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86
Q

What is the function of the adipose capsule in the kidney?

A

cushions kidney

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87
Q

What is the function of renal fascia?

What tissue is it made of?

A
  • anchors kidney to surrounding structures
  • moderately dense CT
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88
Q

What is the function of the renal cortex?

A

filters blood

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89
Q

What is the function of the renal column?

What is it continuous with?

A
  • separates renal pyramids
  • continuous with the renal cortex
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90
Q

What is the function of the renal medulla?

What is it organized into?

A
  • contains urine concentration
  • organized into renal pyramids
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91
Q

What is the function of the renal calyx and renal pelvis?

A

funnels urine out

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92
Q

What is the function of the ureter?

A

drains urine

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93
Q

What type of capillary is the glomerulus?

A

fenestrated capillary

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94
Q

What tissue is the Bowman’s Capsule made of?

A

simple squamous ET

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95
Q

In the glomerulus, __________ have feet that interlink.

A

podocytes

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96
Q

What are filtration slits in the glomerulus?

What can’t get through them?

A
  • the spaces between podocytes
  • larger things like RBCs, WBCs, platelets, and hormones
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97
Q

What are the functions of the Glomerulus?

A

Removes plasma, protein, ions, nutrients, wastes, and more from blood

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98
Q

What is Glomerular Ultrafiltrate?

A

what eventually becomes urine

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99
Q

What is the function of the Proximal Convoluted Tubule in a nephron?

What tissue is it made of?

A
  • reabsorbs nutrients, travels with water
  • simple cuboidal ET with microvilli
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100
Q

In a nephron, Loops of Henle are part of the vasa recta.

What is the function of the Descending Limb? What tissue is it made of?

What is the function of the Ascending Limb? What tissue is it made of?

A
  • reabsorbs water, simple squamous ET
  • reabsorbs ions, simple cuboidal ET
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101
Q

What is the function of the Distal Convoluted Tubule in a nephron?

What tissue is made of?

A
  • perfects urine
  • simple cuboidal ET
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102
Q

Reabsorption and secretion in the distal convoluted tubule are under the influence of __________.

103
Q
  • the functional unit of the kidney
  • where we filter blood and concentrate urine
104
Q

What is glomerulonephritis?

What causes it?

A
  • inflammation that occurs when the glomerulus gets clogged
  • too much protein in blood (from too many antibodies or tearing muscles)
105
Q

What are kidney stones?

Causes?

A
  • crystals that form in the kidneys
  • calcium crystals are most common
  • leading cause is dehydration
106
Q

What are the 2 ways kidney stones are treated?

A

1) Lithotripsy → ultrasound waves break the crystal(s) into smaller pieces so they can be passed

2) Stent: a wire mesh is placed in the ureters so the crystal(s) can be passed

107
Q

Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is the leading cause for kidney transplants. What is it?

Causes?

A
  • when the kidney gets covered in cysts
  • genetic
108
Q

What is hemodialysis?

A
  • when blood is filtered using an external membrane
  • a treatment for when the kidneys begin to fail
109
Q

What is hemodialysis?

A
  • when blood is filtered using an external membrane
  • a treatment for when the kidneys begin to fail
110
Q

What is peritoneal dialysis?

A

when the peritoneal cavity is filled with fluid, then drained

111
Q

Where does a bladder infection start?

What is the most common cause?

What happens if it goes untreated?

A
  • starts at the trigone
  • most start as UTIs
  • can move up the ureter to the kidney if untreated
112
Q

What are the 2 reasons women are more prone to UTIs?

A

1) the female urethra is so close to the anus

2) the female urethra is only 4cm

113
Q

What is a catheter?

What does it prevent?

In what situations should a catheter be used?

A
  • a tube that keeps the urethra open so urine can drain out
  • prevents the bladder from bursting
  • coma, surgery, epidural
114
Q

What are the functions of the male reproductive system?

A

1) produce sperm

2) deliver sperm

115
Q

What is the function of the capsule in the testis?

What tissue is it made of?

A
  • encapsulates each testis
  • dense irregular CT
116
Q

What is the function of seminiferous tubules?

What tissue are they made of?

A
  • make sperm

simple columnar ET

117
Q

What is the function of sustentacular cells in the seminiferous tubules?

A

produce sperm

118
Q

What is the function of interstitial cells in the seminiferous tubules?

A

make testosterone

119
Q

What is the function of acrosome in the head of a sperm?

A

contains digestive enzymes to penetrate the egg

120
Q

What is the function of mitochondria in the midpiece of a sperm?

A

produces energy so the sperm can swim

121
Q

What is the function of the flagellum of a sperm?

A

allows the sperm to swim

122
Q

What structure connects the testis to the skin?

A

gubernaculum

123
Q

The testes are fully descended _______ after birth.

124
Q

What muscle is responsible for lifting or lowering the testes to keep them at the perfect temperature?

A

Cremaster Muscle

125
Q

What is the tube connecting the testis to the urethra?

A

Vas Deferens

126
Q

What is the blood vessel that brings blood down to the testes?

A

Testicular Artery

127
Q

What is the blood vessel that cools blood coming down to the testes?

Hint: testicular vein

A

Pampiniform Plexus

128
Q
  • Where sperm are stored and mature
  • Sperm that has been sitting for too long gets reabsorbed here
A

epididymis

129
Q

Sperm only goes through the ___________ during ejaculation.

A

Vas Deferens

130
Q
  • Tissue that fills with blood and becomes rigid
  • Both males and female genitalia have this
A

erectile tissue

131
Q

Why is the Corpus Spongiosum slightly softer than the Corpora Cavernosa?

A

so the urethra doesn’t close during an erection

132
Q

Where does the ejaculatory duct receive secretions from?

A

seminal vesicle and prostate gland

133
Q

_________ + _________ = semen

A

seminal fluid + sperm

134
Q

What are the 3 glands of the male reproductive system?

A

1) seminal vesicle

2) prostate gland

3) bulbourethral gland

135
Q

What is the function of the seminal vesicle?

A

makes sperm and seminal fluid

136
Q

What is the function of the prostate gland?

A

makes seminal fluid

137
Q

What is the function of the bulbourethral gland?

A

releases a lubricant into the urethra before ejaculation

138
Q

During an erection, _________ dilate and _________ constrict during arousal.

After arousal, _________ drain blood.

A
  • arterioles dilate and venules constrict
  • venules drain blood
139
Q

What are undescended testes?

Treatment?

A
  • when the testes don’t descend correctly
  • fixed with surgery
140
Q

What is an inguinal hernia?

Causes?

Treatment?

A
  • when the small intestine gets stuck in the inguinal canal
  • caused by overworking muscles
  • treated with surgery
141
Q

What is testicular tortion?

Causes?

Treament?

A
  • when the testis spins in the scrotum, twisting the spermatic cord
  • caused by movement and a sudden change in temperature
  • treated with surgery
142
Q

What is variocele?

Causes?

A
  • varicose veins in the pampiniform plexus
  • occurs as elastic fibers weaken
  • no signs or symptoms
143
Q

Why is variocele the leading cause of male infertility?

A

because the pampiniform plexus can no longer cool the testicular artery

144
Q

What is the most common form of cancer for men in their twenties?

A

testicular cancer

145
Q

Why is the prostate gland cancer prone?

How is prostate cancer diagnosed?

Signs and symptoms?

A
  • because it never stops growing
  • rectal exam
  • presents with difficulty urinating
146
Q

What is circumcision?

A

a procedure that cuts off the prepuce

147
Q

Erectile dysfunction drugs are classified as arteriole dilators. How can they result in necrosis of the penis?

A

If arterioles stay dilated for too long → blood doesn’t drain → lack of oxygen

148
Q

What happens with a broken penis?

Cause?

Treatment?

A
  • the capsule(s) break
  • leading cause is intercourse
  • treated with surgery
149
Q

What are the functions of the female reproductive system?

A

1) egg maturation and ovulation

2) gestation

3) childbirth

150
Q

What is the function of ovaries?

What hormones do they produce?

A
  • mature eggs
  • estrogen and progesterone
151
Q

Ovaries are located in the ____________________________.

A

peritoneal cavity

152
Q

In the ovary, where does egg maturation occur?

153
Q

In the ovary, what tissue is the medulla made of?

A

areolar CT

154
Q

In the ovary, what tissue is the capsule made of?

A

dense irregular CT

155
Q

The mesovarium in the ovary is equivalent to the __________ peritoneum.

156
Q

Fallopian tubes are where fertilization occurs. What is their function?

What tissue are they made of?

A
  • to move the egg from the ovary to the uterus
  • pseudostratified columnar ET with cilia
157
Q

What is the function of fimbriae?

A

to catch the egg and sweep it into the fallopian tube

158
Q

What is the distal third?

A

the location of fertilization (in fallopian tube)

159
Q

What are the 3 layers of the uterus? In order from deep to superficial.

A

1) Perimetrium

2) Myometrium

3) Endometrium

160
Q

What is the function of the myometrium in the uterus?

A

smooth muscle that is responsible for contractions and labor

161
Q

The endometrium is comprised of 2 layers. What are they and what tissue are they made of?

A

1) Stratum Basale → moderately dense areolar CT

2) Stratum Functionale → areolar CT that grows in response to hormones

162
Q

What tissue is the vagina made of and why?

A

Non-keratinized stratified squamous ET with rugae for stretch

163
Q

Secretions from the vagina actually come from the ___________ in the uterus.

What are the 2 types of secretions?

A
  • stratum functionale
  • acid secretions and discharge
164
Q

A component of the vulva, what are the outer folds?

Equivalent to the scrotum.

A

Labia Majora

165
Q

A component of the vulva, what are the inner folds?

What tissue are they made of?

Equivalent to the Corpora Cavernosa and Corpus Spongiosum.

A
  • Labia Minora
  • Erectile Tissue
166
Q

The labia minora meet at the _____.

Equivalent to the glans penis.

167
Q

The Vestibule is the space within the Labia Minora. What does it contain?

A
  • urethra
  • vagina
  • vestibular gland
168
Q

What is the membrane covering the vagina at birth?

169
Q

What is the function of the vestibular gland in the female reproductive system?

What gland is it equivalent to in the male reproductive system?

A
  • releases lubrication during sex
  • equivalent to the bulbourethral gland
170
Q

The Corpus Luteum releases estrogen and progesterone which affect ________ and _________.

A

secondary sexual characteristics and the uterus

171
Q

The corpus luteum dies to become the _____________ unless pregnancy occurs.

A

corpus albicans

172
Q

Women are born with about 450,000 primordial follicles which consist of:

  • Primary Oocyte
  • Follicular Cells

What is the function of both?

A
  • Primary Oocyte → the egg
  • Follicular Cells → support and nourish the egg
173
Q

A muscle of the pelvic floor, what is the function of the bulbospongiosus muscle?

A
  • acts as a urethral muscle for peristalsis
  • helps you urinate
174
Q

A muscle of the pelvic floor, what is the function of the Urogenital (UG) Diaphragm?

A
  • acts as a urethral sphincter
  • helps close the urethra when you aren’t urinating
175
Q

A muscle of the pelvic floor, what is the function of the Levator Ani?

A
  • allows for defacation
  • lifts up the sigmoid colon
176
Q

All muscles of the pelvic floor share this tendon so if it tears, none of them will work.

A

Central Tendon of Perineum

177
Q

What occurs with fraternal twins?

A
  • 2 eggs are released but fertilized separately by different sperm
  • the eggs get ovulated at the same time
  • 2 trophoblasts with 1 inner cell mass each, different placentas
178
Q

What is an ectopic pregnancy?

A

a pregnancy that occurs anywhere other than the uterus

179
Q

A type of ectopic pregnancy, what is a tubal pregnancy?

A

when the egg is fertilized in the fallopian tube

180
Q

A type of ectopic pregnancy, what is a peritoneal pregnancy?

A

when the egg is fertilized in the peritoneal cavity

181
Q

How is Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID) caused?

Signs and symptoms?

What happens if it goes untreated?

A
  • typically caused by an infection
  • presents with abdominal pain
  • If untreated can move up the fallopian tubes and into the peritoneal cavity AND/OR cause infertility if scar tissue is formed
182
Q

What is the female version of a vasectomy called?

Why is it a more invasive procedure than a vasectomy?

A
  • tubal ligation
  • more invasive because the procedure requires cutting into the peritoneal cavity
183
Q

Uterine Fibroids are the leading cause of hysterectomies. What are they?

A
  • lumps of dense irregular CT on the uterus
  • extremely painful and can cause infertility
184
Q

What is endometriosis?

What is occurring?

Signs and symptoms?

A
  • when endometrial cells get into the peritoneal cavity
  • the cells leave the uterus through the fallopian tubes, growing and shedding in response to hormones
  • presents with pain in response to the menstrual cycle
185
Q

Why is uterine cancer so common?

A

because the tissue grows every month

186
Q

Why is cervical cancer so common?

Causes?

Prevention?

Detection?

A
  • because the tissue grows every month
  • leading cause is HPV
  • prevented by the Gardasil Vaccine
  • Detected through a pap smear
187
Q

What occurs with a prolapsed uterus?

Causes?

Prevention?

A
  • when the uterus is no longer held up by the pelvic floor muscles
  • leading causes are old age and/or multiple childbirths
  • prevented with kegel exercises
188
Q

What occurs during fertilization?

Where does it occur?

A
  • when one sperm gets into an egg
  • occurs in the distal third of the fallopian tube
189
Q

Immediately upon fertilization, the egg forms a fertilization membrane. What is the function of this?

A

Prevents other sperm from penetrating the egg

190
Q

What occurs during embryonic cleavages?

A
  • the egg stays the same size but its cells decrease in size as they divide
191
Q

What is the function of the HCG hormone?

A

maintains the corpus luteum during pregnancy

192
Q

What forms on day 5 of embryonic development?

A

blastocyst

193
Q

What does the trophoblast of a blastocyst eventually become?

194
Q

The inner cell mass of a blastocyst eventually becomes the ________.

What type of cells does it contain?

A
  • embryo
  • totipotent stem cells
195
Q

What happens during implantation?

A

trophoblast cells invade the endometrium and form chorionic villi

196
Q

What do chorionic villi eventually become?

What tissue are they made of and why?

A
  • chorion and placenta
  • simple squamous ET for easy diffusion
197
Q

How does the placenta form?

A

when the chorion shrinks to one location

198
Q

The umbilical cord consists of 3 blood vessels. What are they?

A
  • Umbilical arteries (2)
  • Umbilical vein (1)
199
Q

What occurs during gastruation?

A

the inner cell mass divides itself into 3 layers

200
Q

What are the primary germ layers and what do they become?

A

1) Ectoderm → epidermis and nervous system

2) Mesoderm → connective tissues, cardiovascular system, and more

3) Endoderm → GI tract, lungs, and renal system

201
Q

What is the amnion?

What is it filled with?

A
  • what the ectoderm folds into
  • amniotic fluid
202
Q

What are the functions of amniotic fluid?

A

suspend and cushion the embryo

203
Q

What is the function of the yolk sac?

A

nourishes the embryo

204
Q

Ontogeny Recapitulates Phylogeny is the theory that embryonic development retells evolution. Provide examples of this.

A

1) All vertebrate embryos are segmented

2) Branchial Arches → in fish these form gills but humans repurposed these to form certain bones

3) Between different species embryos look the same, proving that at some point we all had a common ancestor

205
Q

In most people, the remnant of the yolk sac simply disappears. However in 2% of people, it becomes a _____________ in the small intestine.

A

diverticulum

206
Q

The umbilical arteries are a branch of the ____________.

A

internal iliac arteries

207
Q

The umbilical vein dumps into the ______________.

A

inferior vena cava

208
Q

What is the function of the ductus arteriosus in fetal blood circulation?

A

connects the aorta and pulmonary trunk

209
Q

What is the foramen ovale in fetal blood circulation?

A

a hole between the two atria of the heart

210
Q

List the differences between fetal and adult blood circulation.

A

1) umbilical arteries

2) umbilical vein

3) ductus arteriosus

4) foramen ovale

211
Q

What is organogenesis?

A

the creation of organs

212
Q

A key part of organogenesis, what is morphogenesis?

A

the formation of the 3D shape of organs

213
Q

Morphogenesis and differentiation are dependent on localization signals.

What are they?

A

how the body tells cells where they are

213
Q

A key part of organogenesis, what is differentiation?

Provide an example.

A
  • the specialization of cells
  • EX) totipotent stem cells turning into cardiac muscle cells
214
Q

Localization signals consist of chemical gradients and induction.

What is the function of chemical gradients?

A

to determine which cells become certain organs

215
Q

Localization signals consist of chemical gradients and induction.

How does induction work?

A

cells that are in close contact with one another can communicate, telling each other to form certain organs

216
Q

What is neurulation?

A

development of the nervous system

217
Q

What is the function of the notocord in neurulation?

A

induces the neural tube to form and pop off

218
Q

What is the function of the neural tube in neurulation?

A

pops off and forms the central nervous system

219
Q

What is the function of neural crest cells?

A

pop off and form the peripheral nervous system and melanocytes

220
Q

Cubes of mesoderm that give rise to vertebrae, muscles, ligaments, etc.

221
Q

How do limb buds develop?

A

mesoderm cells concentrate in areas to form cartilage → bone

222
Q

Initially, the ectoderm forms a web around bones. What occurs to make that web go away?

223
Q

What is morphological movement?

A

when chemical gradients and induction cause the face to wrap forward

224
Q

What is morphological movement?

Provide an example.

A
  • when chemical gradients and induction cause the face to wrap forward
  • the philtrum forms when the two sides of the face merge
225
Q

In the formation of external genitalia, what do the labio scrotal folds become?

A

labia or scrotum

226
Q

In the formation of external genitalia, what do the urethral folds become?

227
Q

In the formation of external genitalia, what does the genital tubercle become?

228
Q

Males start secreting embryonic testosterone at 6 weeks. What are the functions?

A

1) causes urethral folds to close

2) causes labio scrotal folds to fold together

3) causes genital tubercle to form the penis

229
Q

The term embryo is used to describe development _________.

The term fetus is used to describe development __________.

A

Embryo → before 10-12 weeks

Fetus → at 10-12 weeks

230
Q

By ________ into development, organs are in place and fully developed.

231
Q

During vaginal birth, what does the mother’s neurohypophysis start secreting?

232
Q

What is the function of oxytocin during vaginal birth?

A

1) contracts the smooth muscle of the myometrium (of the uterus)

2) helps close arterioles in the placenta after birth

233
Q

Explain how a positive feedback loop in the body only occurs during vaginal childbirth.

A

oxytocin pushes the baby on the cervix which in turn, secretes more oxytocin

234
Q

What are the reasons why vaginal births are better for a baby than cesarean sections?

A

1) vaginal birth squeezes fluid out of the lungs so a baby can breathe sooner

2) a baby’s microbiological biome starts with vaginal childbirth

235
Q

What occurs during a Cesarean Section?

A

Rectus abdominis is cut

↓

Uterus is cut

↓

Baby is removed

236
Q

List the 4 reasons a woman might need a Cesarean Section.

A

1) Transverse / breech position

2) Placenta Previa

3) Placenta Abruptio

4) Umbilical cord comes out first

237
Q

Explain the basis of anatomical variation and provide some common examples.

A
  • every person has a normal amount of variation in their anatomy
  • renal arteries
  • bile and pancreatic ducts
  • situs inversis
238
Q

What is placenta previa?

A
  • when the placenta blocks the cervix
  • prevents natural childbirth, requires a c-section
239
Q

What is placenta abruptio?

A
  • when the placenta detaches from the wall of the uterus before the baby is born
  • requires a c-section
240
Q

What occurs with identical twins?

A
  • the inner cell mass of the blastocyst divides in half
  • 1 trophoblast with 2 inner cell masses, they share a placenta
241
Q

What occurs with conjoined twins?

A

the inner cell mass of the blastocyst doesn’t divide completely

242
Q

What is amniocentesis?

A
  • when embryonic fluid is extracted
  • how embryonic cells are tested for genetic markers
243
Q

What is Spina Biffida?

A
  • occurs when the notocord doesn’t close posteriorly
  • the spinal cord and meninges start growing out of the opening
  • the spinal cord and nerves will not develop properly, inferior to the opening → this can result in a baby being born paralyzed
244
Q

What is anencephaly?

A
  • occurs when the notocord doesn’t close anteriorly
  • the top of the spinal cord doesn’t form → no brain formation
  • babies born with this only live a few days
245
Q

What is a Mongolian Spot?

A
  • forms when many neural crest cells enter the epidermis at the buttocks
  • only seen in Asian and Native American populations
  • Only lasts for about one year before the cells disperse evenly
246
Q

Explain why webbed fingers/toes occur.

A
  • when apoptosis doesn’t occur and the ectodermal cells remain webbed
247
Q

What is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome?

A
  • causes incomplete morphological movement
  • main symptom is mental problems
248
Q

What are the physical characteristics that come with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome?

A
  • eyes are far apart
  • flat bride of nose
  • no philtrum
  • very wide mouth with a flat upper lip
249
Q

What is Cleft Lip?

A
  • when the philtrum doesn’t form during morphological movement
  • common with alcohol exposure during pregnancy
250
Q

What is Cleft Palate?

A
  • when the palate doesn’t close during morphological movement
  • dangerous because the oral and nasal cavities aren’t separated
  • requires reconstructive surgery
  • common with alcohol exposure during pregnancy
251
Q

What is hyposodias?

A
  • when the urethral folds don’t fold in correctly
  • causes the urethra to be in the wrong place
  • may require reconstructive surgery
252
Q

How do incorrect levels of testosterone affect external genitalia?

A
  • incorrect levels of testosterone can cause both male and female genitalia to form incorrectly
  • requires reconstructive surgery
253
Q

What is situs inversus?

A
  • when all of the organs are flipped left and right
  • the most significant example of anatomical variation
  • does not affect function
  • can be dangerous if a person doesn’t know they have this and undergoes surgery

Anatomy 231 (6 decks)

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