Final Exam Terms Flashcards
Lexical ambiguity
a word is lexically ambiguous if it has more than one sense; if it can mean different things in different contexts
Hyponym
a specific term that contains the meaning of a more general word (mutt is a hyponym of dog)
Superordinate
a general term included in the meaning of many more specific words (hyponyms)
Overlap
two words overlap in meaning if they have the same value for some (not all) semantic features
Binary atonyms
pairs the have no middle ground between them (dead and alive)
Gradable antonyms
pairs the describe opposite ends of a continuous dimension (hot and cold)
Converse antonyms
pairs that describe a relationship between two items from opposite perspectives (above and below)
Referent
the entity identified in an expression (that bird)
Extension
set of all potential referents for a particular referent (set of all birds)
Prototype
a typical member of the extension of a referent
Stereotype
a list of characteristics describing a prototype
Coreference
two linguistic expressions that refer to the same real-world entity
Anaphora
a linguistic expression that refer to another linguistic expression (pronouns)
Deixis
an expression that has one meaning but can refer to different entities depending on the speaker and their temporal orientation (left and right, you and I)
Entailment
a proposition that necessarily follows from another sentence
Martina aced chemistry entails (requires that) Martina passed chemistry
Martina passed chemistry is the entailment of Martina aced chemistry
Presupposition
a proposition that must be assumed to be true in order to judge the truth or falsity of another sentence
Martina aced chemistry presupposes Martina took chemistry
Martina took chemistry is the presupposition of Martina aced chemistry
PS rules
Specify which elements are permitted in a particular type of phrase, the left-to-right ordering of those elements, and whether any of the elements are optional
Recursion
allows phrase structure grammar to create an infinite number of structures by embedding two types of phrases in each other
Embedding
a clause found within a higher clause
Transformation
moves a lexical or phrasal category from one location to another within a sentence
Wh-Movement
moves a wh-item into clause-initial position
I-Movement
moves the tensed auxiliary verb to the left of the subject NP
Underlying structure
the structure of a sentence before any transformations are applied
Surface structure
the structure of a sentence after any transformations are applied
Theory of syntax
Category
Left-to-right ordering
Constituent structure
Transformations
Constraints on transformations
Grammatical morphemes
Don’t convey meaning of themselves, express a relationship between lexical morphemes, or changes the grammatical function or category of lexical morphemes
Lexical morphemes
Have a sense in and of themselves, or function to modify the meaning of a word
Inflectional morphemes
Modify the tense, number, possession, or comparison of a word/root; changes its grammatical function without changing its meaning or category
8 types of inflectional morphemes
{PLU}, {POSS}, {COMP}, {SUP}, {PRES}, {PAST}, {PAST PART}, {PRES PART}
Derivational morphemes
change the semantic meaning or category of the word
Derivation
the addition of a derivational affix, changing the syntactic category of the word
Category extension
extension of a morpheme from one syntactic category to another
Compound
creating a new word by combining two free morphemes
Root creation
a brand new word based on no preexisting morphemes
Clipped form
shortened form of a preexisting morpheme
Blend
a combination of parts of two preexisting forms
Acronym
a word formed from the first letters of each word in a phrase
Abbreviation
a word formed from the names of the first letters of the prominent syllables of a word (initialization)
Proper name
forms a word from a proper name
Folk etymology
forms a word by substituting a common native form for an exotic form with similar pronunciation
Allophones
variations of the same phoneme which are always phonetically similar and in complementary distribution or free variation
Aspiration
a voiceless stop (p, t, and k) becomes aspirated when it begins a syllable and occurs before a stressed vowel
Overt negative sentences
those containing not or a contraction of it
Inherent negatives
those containing a word whose meaning includes negation (absent, empty)
Passive sentences
The agent becomes the object of a by-phrase in the predicate
The patient is in the subject position
Thematic role
the relation of a noun phrase to the action described by a verb
Agent
the performer of the action described by a verb
Patient
the thing affected by the action of the verb
Beneficiary
the entity that benefits from the action
Instrument
the thing used to carry out the action
Given-New contract
the arrangement of given and new information from sentence to sentence (aka thematic progression)
Linear progression
represented as AB:BC
Hierarchal progression
represented as AB:AC
Universals (language variation)
categories and rules that all human language, past and present, have in common
categories of noun and verb, at least one voiceless stop, syllables of CV form, color system with black and white (sometimes red)
Dialect
systemic variation of a language specific to a particular group
Idiolect
linguistic system of a particular speaker
Mutually intelligible
describes varieties of language whose speakers can (for the most part) understand each other
dialects of the same language are mutually intelligible, two different languages are not
Phonological variation
Linking, consonant epenthesis, vowel epenthesis
Linking
when a vowel-vowel sequence between words is linked with an [r]
Consonant epenthesis
when a consonant is inserted to break up a series of two vowels
Vowel epenthesis
when a vowel is inserted to break up a series of two consonants
Registers
different styles of speaking based on formality
Generalization
increasing the scope of a word
Specialization
decreasing the scope of a word
Amelioration
elevating to connotation of a word
Pejoration
lowering the connotation of a word
Taboo
stigmatizing a word or phrase
Metaphor
extending a word to contexts outside its literal sense
Association
change in meaning based on a word’s association with a secondary object or concept
Dilution
gradual loss of semantic content from extensive use as an intensifier
Nativism
Mentalism, mind has more innate structure
Chomsky
Language acquisition is primarily biologically determined
Language is acquired
Empiricism
Behaviorism, mind has less innate structure
Language acquisition is primarily culturally determined
Language is learned
Negative transfer
when a property of the L1 impedes L2 acquisition
Universals (L2 acquisition)
helps L2 learners acquire grammatical knowledge that cannot be inferred solely from the data they are exposed to
Implicational universal
a universal whose presence implies some other property
Nonimplicational universal
any universal that is not implicational
Absolute universal
a universal that is without exception
Statistical universal
universals that occur frequently but do have exceptions
Parametric universals
a two-valued property where languages either have one value or the other
Phonemic distinction
Some languages have one phoneme with allophones where some have separate phonemes
Example: Japanese has one phoneme /r/ with allophones [l] and [r]. English has separate phonemes /l/ and /r/.
A native speaker of Japanese would have more difficulty learning English as an L2 because they would need to make a phonemic distinction nor found in their native language
Phonotactic constraints
restrictions on the permissible sequences of segments in a language
Deceptive transparency
when a word’s morphemes lead a nonnative speaker to misinterpret the word
Field independence
a style of learning where the individual is able to isolate specific data and analyze them
Field dependence
a style of learning where the individual attempts to analyze all data at once
Integrative motivation
desire to become part of community or culture
Instrumental motivation
desire to learn language for practical purposes, such as getting a job
Great Vowel Shift
occurred during the transition from Middle English (c. 1440) to Early Modern English (c. 1600)
affected long vowels, shifted upward
