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Anatomy & Physiology 1 > Final Exam Review (Acid-Base & Reproductive) > Flashcards

Final Exam Review (Acid-Base & Reproductive) Flashcards

1
Q

List blood flow order starting with the inferior vena cava:

A
  • inferior vena cava
  • right atrium
  • tricuspid valve
  • right ventricle
  • semilunar pulmonary valve
  • pulmonary trunk
  • pulmonary artery
  • lung capillaries
  • pulmonary veins
  • left atrium
  • bicuspid (mitral) valves
  • left ventricle
  • semilunar aortic valve
  • aorta
  • body
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2
Q

“lub dub” sound of the heart:

A
  • lub = heard when atrioventricular shut close
  • dub = heard when semilunar valves shut close
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3
Q

“master” endocrine gland:

A

Hypothalamus

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4
Q

renal mechanisms for acid-base regulation:

A
  • slowest but most potent
  • adjusts HCO3- (bicarbonate) reabsorption & H+ secretion
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5
Q

acid-base regulation of the renal system when blood is too acidic:

A
  • increase HCO3- reabsorption (bicarbonate is a base)
  • increase H+ secretion (H+ is an acid) in urine
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6
Q

acid-base regulation of the renal system when blood is too basic:

A
  • decrease HCO3- (bicarbonate is a base) reabsorption
  • decrease H+ secretion (H+ is an acid)
  • may also increase HCO3- secretion in urine = lose base in urine & retain more H+ (acid) in the blood
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7
Q

type 2 diabetes melitus:

A
  • insulin resistance
  • treated with diet & exercise
  • complications: too much glucose in blood = carriers reach a transport maximum; cannot reabsorb all glucose (normally 100% of glucose & amino acids are reabsorbed at the PCT) === glucosuria: glucose lost in urine & polyuria: water lost in urine as it follows glucose
  • results in dehydration & extreme thirst
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8
Q

Steroid-based hormone characteristics:

A
  • lipid soluble
  • secreted from gonads & adrenal cortex
  • intracellular: direct gene activation in the DNA
  • usually stimulates synthesis of new proteins
  • slower action rate (hours to days)
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9
Q

constituents of blood plasma:

A
  • 90% water
  • dissolved solute = glucose, amino acids, fatty acids
  • O2, CO2, hormones, wastes
  • inorganic ions (electrolytes mostly Na+ & Cl-)
  • plasma proteins = globulins, fibrinogen (scabs & clots), & albumin (60% of plasma proteins) functions to carry molecules; acts as blood buffer & helps with osmotic pressure
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10
Q

albumin function:

A
  • maintaining osmotic pressure
  • transporting other molecules (hormones & drugs)
  • neutralizing free radicals
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11
Q

hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis:

A
  1. corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) travels from hypothalamus down through hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary
  2. CRH stimulates secretion of adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) [this takes place in anterior pituitary]
  3. ACTH then triggers secretion of gluco/mineralo corticosteroid hormones [this takes place in adrenal cortex]
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12
Q

hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis:

A
  1. thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) travels from hypothalamus down through hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary
  2. thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) [in anterior pituitary] stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones mostly T4 [in the thyroid glad]
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13
Q

types of WBCs & their target/function:

A
  1. neutrophils: respond to bacterial infection; most abundant; 3-5 lobes connected
  2. lymphocytes: immune memory & antibody secretion; eye-looking
  3. monocytes: largest; kidney-shaped nucleus; used for inflammation & viral infection; once they enter tissues = macrophages
  4. eosinophils: abundant in mucus membranes; for allergies & parasites; 2 lobes connected
  5. basophils: rarest; secrete histamine (vasodilation), heparin (anticoagulant)
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14
Q

hemoglobin structure:

A
  • 4 polypeptide chains
  • two beta chains & two alpha chains
  • red heme pigment bound to each protein globin
  • each heme’s central iron atom binds to one O2 molecule
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15
Q

urine flow order:

A
  • nephrons (cortex)
  • pyramids (medulla)
  • papillae
  • minor calyces
  • major calyces
  • renal pelvis
  • ureters
  • bladder
  • urethra
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16
Q

phases of cardiac cycle:

A

1) ventricular filling: mid/late diastole:
a) pressure is low; 80% blood flows passively from atria into ventricles SL valves are closed
b) atrial depolarization triggers atrial systole (P wave) = atrial contraction pushes remaining 20% of blood to ventricle
c) depolarization spreads to ventricle (QRS wave)
d) atria finish contacting & return to diastole while ventricles begin systole

2) ventricular systole:
a) atria relax; ventricles begin to contact
b) rising ventricular pressure = close AV valves
c) isovolumetric contraction phase: all valves closed & ejection phase: pressure increase = forces SL valves open
d) end systolic volume (ESV) = volume of blood remaining in each ventricle after systole

3) isovlumetric relaxation: early diastole
a) following ventricular repolarization (T wave), ventricles are relaxed; atria are relaxed & filling with blood
b) backflow of blood in aorta & pulmonary trunk closes SL valves; isovolumetric all valves closed again
c) when atrial pressure exceeds ventricular pressure = AV valves open & cycle starts again

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17
Q

characteristics of arteries:

A

3 groups:
1) elastic = conduct blood from heart to medium sized vessels (found in aorta)
2) muscular = deliver/distribute blood to organs have most smooth muscle
3) arterioles = smallest version of artery; smooth muscle controls blood flow into capillary beds

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18
Q

capillary layer(s)

A
  • tunica intima only
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19
Q

stomach cell types:

A
  • parietal cells: secrete HCl, intrinsic factor, & ghrelin
  • G cells: secrete gastrin to stimulate secretion of HCl
  • enteroendocrine cells: secrete hormones that regulate digestion
  • foveolar (mucous neck): secrete mucus to protect stomach lining
  • chief cells: secrete gastric lipase, leptin, & pepsinogen
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20
Q

EKG waves & what they represent:

A
  • P wave: depolarization of SA node & atria
  • QRS complex: ventricular depolarization & atrial repolarization
  • T wave: ventricular repolarization
  • U wave: papillary muscles/purkinje fibers repolarize if U wave inverted @ rest = hypertension/if inverted after exercise = coronary artery obstruction
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21
Q

sperm flow order:

A
  • testes
  • epididymis
  • vans deferens
  • seminal vesicles
  • ejaculatory duct (prostate)
  • prostatic urethra
  • membranous urethra
  • spongy urethra
  • external urethral orifice
22
Q

where is testosterone secreted from?

A
  • interstitial endocrine cells (Leydig) in the interstices (spaces) between tubules
  • from the testes
23
Q

testosterone:

A
  • function: spermatogenesis (formation of sperm)
24
Q

function of Inhibin protein:

A

males:
- protein hormone produced by sustentocytes
- when sperm count is high, inhibin inhibits secretion of FSH & GnRH
females:
- secreted from corpus luteum along with progesterone & estrogen

25
Q

gonads:

A
  • where the sperm or oocyte is actually made
  • male = scrotum (sperm made in seminiferous tubules & matures in epididymis)
  • females = ovaries
26
Q

proliferative phase:

A
  • days 6-14
  • endometrium regrows
  • estrogen from the dominant follicle stimulates endometrium to regrow
27
Q

ovarian cycle:

A
  • day 1 in uterine cycle = day 1 in ovarian cycle: first day of menstruation (bleeding)
    1. follicular phase: days 1-14 when follicle develops
    2. ovulatory phase: brief time on day 14 when follicle ruptures & oocyte is ovulated
    3. luteal phase: days 14-28 when the corpus luteum develops from the ruptured follicle
28
Q

LH surge:

A
  • dominant follicle is now secreting a high level of estrogen
  • control switches to positive feedback
  • high estrogen levels trigger a large LH surge & a smaller FSH surge
  • occurs around day 14
    triggers two events:
  • ovulation (oocyte is released & will be drawn into uterine tube)
  • formation of corpus luteum (ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus luteum) = luteal phase begins = corpus luteum now secretes progesterone, estrogen & inhibin
29
Q

corpus luteum:

A
  • develops from ruptured follicle
  • secretes progesterone & estrogen
30
Q

corpus luteum:

A
  • develops from ruptured follicle
  • secretes progesterone, estrogen, & inhibin
  • (yellow body)
  • if oocyte is not fertilized, corpus luteum dies & becomes corpus albicans (white scar tissue)
31
Q

hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (MALES):

A
  • regulated by negative feedback only
  • GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) released from hypothalamus
  • GnRH triggers release of FSH & LH (from anterior pituitary)
  • increases spermatogenesis & testosterone
32
Q

hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (FEMALE):

A
  • regulated by negative & positive feedback
  • GnRH from hypothalamus triggers release of FSH & development of dominant oocyte
  • estrogen from oocyte stimulates proliferation of uterine lining
  • high estrogen levels trigger high LH secretion
  • high LH secretion triggers ovulation & development of a corpus lutem
  • progesterone from the corpus luteum stimulates secretory phase in uterus
33
Q

penis shaft anatomy:

A
  1. corpus cavernosa = 2 large columns on dorsal aspect of penis shaft
  2. corpus spongiosum = small column along the ventral aspect of the shaft that surrounds the urethra
  3. erectile tissue = spongy network of CT & smooth muscle; has open vascular caverns that fill w blood during an erection
34
Q

Uterine (menstrual) cycle [general]:

A
  • secretion of estrogen & progesterone from the ovaries during the ovarian cycle promote monthly changes seen in the endometrium of the uterus
    phases:
    1. menstrual phase (days 1-5) estrogen & progesterone levels drop when corpus luteum dies; stratum functionale of endometrium sheds; bleeding occurs
    2. proliferative phase (day 6-14) estrogen from dominant follicle stimulates endometrium to regrow
    3. secretory phase (day 15-28) progesterone from corpus luteum stimulates increased blood supply; stimulates glands to secrete nutrients to prepare for implantation of an oocyte
35
Q

dartos muscle:

A
  • wrinkles scrotal skin (rugae): smooth muscle pulls scrotum close to body
36
Q

hCG hormone:

A
  • fertilized egg implants in the endometrium = chorion (fetal part of placenta) secretes hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)
  • hCG stimulates the corpus luteum to continue to secrete progesterone, estrogen, & inhibit for the first 3 month of gestation
37
Q

ectopic pregnancy:

A
  • pregnancy is ectopic if implant occurs somewhere other than uterus
  • implantation in uterine tube = tubal pregnancy (90% of all ectopic pregnancies)
  • can lead to a rupture = internal hemorrhage in mother
38
Q

enzyme hyaluronidase:

A
  • contained in single membrane bound acrosome
  • lytic enzyme
  • dissolves hyaluronic acid (glue-like material which binds follicular cells around ovum)
39
Q

phases of orgasm:

A
  1. orgasm (climax) = release of sperm
  2. resolution = muscular & psychological relaxation
  3. refractory (latent) = period during which another orgasm cannot be achieved
40
Q

primary vs accessory reproductive organs:

A
  • primary = gonads (testes & ovaries); homologous structures that produce sex cells & secrete steroid sex hormones
  • accessory = duct systems (transport sperm/oocytes); glands (produce secretions); & external genitalia
41
Q

prostate gland:

A
  • secretes milky, slightly acid fluid (citrate), enzymes, & prostate-specific antigen (PSA) = play roles in sperm activation
42
Q

bulbourethral gland (males) & similar structure in females:

A
  • males: produces thick, clear mucus to lubricate spongy urethra during sexual arousal
  • females: greater vestibular gland (aka bartholin glands)
43
Q

ductus (vas) deferens:

A
  • transports sperm to ejaculatory duct by peristalsis
44
Q

time in ovulation when a woman is least likely to get pregnant:

A
  • days 6-18
45
Q

layers of testes:

A
  1. tunica vaginalis = outer layer derived from peritoneum
  2. tunica albuginea = inner layer; fibrous capsule
46
Q

stages of labor:

A
  1. early labor: labor pains
  2. active labor: 10cm dilation, effacement
  3. fetal birth: crowning, fetal expulsion
  4. placental delivery
47
Q

difference between fertilization & implatation:

A
  • fertilization = occurs in infundibulum of uterine tubule
  • implantation = occurs in endometrium lining in the uterus
48
Q

processes of PCT region of nephron:

A
  • Na+ is pumped out of tubule cell by Na+/K+ pump & enters peritubular capillaries
  • Na+ in filtrate enters via a transport protein
  • glucose & amino acids are cotransported with Na+
  • water is reabsorbed through aquaporins by osmosis
  • urea = lipid soluble waste product; follows water by sovlent drag
  • Cl- & K+ & other ions passively reabsorbed down gradients
49
Q

ovarian follicles:

A
  • ovary is site of follicles
  • follicle = oocyte & its surrounding cells
    development of follicles:
    1. primary follicles begin to develop @ puberty; several begin to grow during monthly cycle
    2. vesicular (graafian) follicle has fluid-filled antrum & bulges from side of ovary
    3. oocyte is ready to be ovulated
    4. @ ovulation, vesicular follicle ruptures & oocyte is released
    5. corpus luteum develops form ruptured follicle; secretes estrogen & progesterone
    6. corpus luteum degenerates & forms a corpus albicans (scar tissue)
50
Q

ABP hormone:

A
  • adrogen-binding-protein
  • FSH acts indirectly to stimulate sustentocytes to produce ABP
  • this keeps testosterone levels high around the spermatogenic cells
51
Q

Leydig endocrine cells:

A
  • LH acts directly = stimulating interstitial Leydig cells to secrete testosterone
  • this trigger spermatogenesis
52
Q

uterine cycle [9 steps]:

A
  1. FSH & LH increase slightly = new follicles develop in the ovary
  2. estrogen & progesterone levels are low = menstruation occurs
  3. slightly elevated estrogen secretion inhibits LH & FSH secretion
  4. estrogen stimulates proliferative phase in uterus
  5. LH & FSH surges around day 14 due to high estrogen (positive feedback)
  6. LH surge triggers ovulation & development of corpus luteum
  7. corpus luteum secretes progesterone = secretory phase in uterus
  8. progesterone, estrogen, & inhibin inhibit GnRH, LH, & FSH secretion; prevents additional ovulations
  9. day 28 = corpus luteum dies releasing inhibition on GnRH, LH, & FSH

Anatomy & Physiology 1 (5 decks)

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