Final Exam Review (Acid-Base & Reproductive) Flashcards
List blood flow order starting with the inferior vena cava:
- inferior vena cava
- right atrium
- tricuspid valve
- right ventricle
- semilunar pulmonary valve
- pulmonary trunk
- pulmonary artery
- lung capillaries
- pulmonary veins
- left atrium
- bicuspid (mitral) valves
- left ventricle
- semilunar aortic valve
- aorta
- body
“lub dub” sound of the heart:
- lub = heard when atrioventricular shut close
- dub = heard when semilunar valves shut close
“master” endocrine gland:
Hypothalamus
renal mechanisms for acid-base regulation:
- slowest but most potent
- adjusts HCO3- (bicarbonate) reabsorption & H+ secretion
acid-base regulation of the renal system when blood is too acidic:
- increase HCO3- reabsorption (bicarbonate is a base)
- increase H+ secretion (H+ is an acid) in urine
acid-base regulation of the renal system when blood is too basic:
- decrease HCO3- (bicarbonate is a base) reabsorption
- decrease H+ secretion (H+ is an acid)
- may also increase HCO3- secretion in urine = lose base in urine & retain more H+ (acid) in the blood
type 2 diabetes melitus:
- insulin resistance
- treated with diet & exercise
- complications: too much glucose in blood = carriers reach a transport maximum; cannot reabsorb all glucose (normally 100% of glucose & amino acids are reabsorbed at the PCT) === glucosuria: glucose lost in urine & polyuria: water lost in urine as it follows glucose
- results in dehydration & extreme thirst
Steroid-based hormone characteristics:
- lipid soluble
- secreted from gonads & adrenal cortex
- intracellular: direct gene activation in the DNA
- usually stimulates synthesis of new proteins
- slower action rate (hours to days)
constituents of blood plasma:
- 90% water
- dissolved solute = glucose, amino acids, fatty acids
- O2, CO2, hormones, wastes
- inorganic ions (electrolytes mostly Na+ & Cl-)
- plasma proteins = globulins, fibrinogen (scabs & clots), & albumin (60% of plasma proteins) functions to carry molecules; acts as blood buffer & helps with osmotic pressure
albumin function:
- maintaining osmotic pressure
- transporting other molecules (hormones & drugs)
- neutralizing free radicals
hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis:
- corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) travels from hypothalamus down through hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary
- CRH stimulates secretion of adrenocorticotropin hormone (ACTH) [this takes place in anterior pituitary]
- ACTH then triggers secretion of gluco/mineralo corticosteroid hormones [this takes place in adrenal cortex]
hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis:
- thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) travels from hypothalamus down through hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary
- thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) [in anterior pituitary] stimulates secretion of thyroid hormones mostly T4 [in the thyroid glad]
types of WBCs & their target/function:
- neutrophils: respond to bacterial infection; most abundant; 3-5 lobes connected
- lymphocytes: immune memory & antibody secretion; eye-looking
- monocytes: largest; kidney-shaped nucleus; used for inflammation & viral infection; once they enter tissues = macrophages
- eosinophils: abundant in mucus membranes; for allergies & parasites; 2 lobes connected
- basophils: rarest; secrete histamine (vasodilation), heparin (anticoagulant)
hemoglobin structure:
- 4 polypeptide chains
- two beta chains & two alpha chains
- red heme pigment bound to each protein globin
- each heme’s central iron atom binds to one O2 molecule
urine flow order:
- nephrons (cortex)
- pyramids (medulla)
- papillae
- minor calyces
- major calyces
- renal pelvis
- ureters
- bladder
- urethra
phases of cardiac cycle:
1) ventricular filling: mid/late diastole:
a) pressure is low; 80% blood flows passively from atria into ventricles SL valves are closed
b) atrial depolarization triggers atrial systole (P wave) = atrial contraction pushes remaining 20% of blood to ventricle
c) depolarization spreads to ventricle (QRS wave)
d) atria finish contacting & return to diastole while ventricles begin systole
2) ventricular systole:
a) atria relax; ventricles begin to contact
b) rising ventricular pressure = close AV valves
c) isovolumetric contraction phase: all valves closed & ejection phase: pressure increase = forces SL valves open
d) end systolic volume (ESV) = volume of blood remaining in each ventricle after systole
3) isovlumetric relaxation: early diastole
a) following ventricular repolarization (T wave), ventricles are relaxed; atria are relaxed & filling with blood
b) backflow of blood in aorta & pulmonary trunk closes SL valves; isovolumetric all valves closed again
c) when atrial pressure exceeds ventricular pressure = AV valves open & cycle starts again
characteristics of arteries:
3 groups:
1) elastic = conduct blood from heart to medium sized vessels (found in aorta)
2) muscular = deliver/distribute blood to organs have most smooth muscle
3) arterioles = smallest version of artery; smooth muscle controls blood flow into capillary beds
capillary layer(s)
- tunica intima only
stomach cell types:
- parietal cells: secrete HCl, intrinsic factor, & ghrelin
- G cells: secrete gastrin to stimulate secretion of HCl
- enteroendocrine cells: secrete hormones that regulate digestion
- foveolar (mucous neck): secrete mucus to protect stomach lining
- chief cells: secrete gastric lipase, leptin, & pepsinogen
EKG waves & what they represent:
- P wave: depolarization of SA node & atria
- QRS complex: ventricular depolarization & atrial repolarization
- T wave: ventricular repolarization
- U wave: papillary muscles/purkinje fibers repolarize if U wave inverted @ rest = hypertension/if inverted after exercise = coronary artery obstruction
sperm flow order:
- testes
- epididymis
- vans deferens
- seminal vesicles
- ejaculatory duct (prostate)
- prostatic urethra
- membranous urethra
- spongy urethra
- external urethral orifice
where is testosterone secreted from?
- interstitial endocrine cells (Leydig) in the interstices (spaces) between tubules
- from the testes
testosterone:
- function: spermatogenesis (formation of sperm)
function of Inhibin protein:
males:
- protein hormone produced by sustentocytes
- when sperm count is high, inhibin inhibits secretion of FSH & GnRH
females:
- secreted from corpus luteum along with progesterone & estrogen
gonads:
- where the sperm or oocyte is actually made
- male = scrotum (sperm made in seminiferous tubules & matures in epididymis)
- females = ovaries
proliferative phase:
- days 6-14
- endometrium regrows
- estrogen from the dominant follicle stimulates endometrium to regrow
ovarian cycle:
- day 1 in uterine cycle = day 1 in ovarian cycle: first day of menstruation (bleeding)
1. follicular phase: days 1-14 when follicle develops
2. ovulatory phase: brief time on day 14 when follicle ruptures & oocyte is ovulated
3. luteal phase: days 14-28 when the corpus luteum develops from the ruptured follicle
LH surge:
- dominant follicle is now secreting a high level of estrogen
- control switches to positive feedback
- high estrogen levels trigger a large LH surge & a smaller FSH surge
- occurs around day 14
triggers two events: - ovulation (oocyte is released & will be drawn into uterine tube)
- formation of corpus luteum (ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus luteum) = luteal phase begins = corpus luteum now secretes progesterone, estrogen & inhibin
corpus luteum:
- develops from ruptured follicle
- secretes progesterone & estrogen
corpus luteum:
- develops from ruptured follicle
- secretes progesterone, estrogen, & inhibin
- (yellow body)
- if oocyte is not fertilized, corpus luteum dies & becomes corpus albicans (white scar tissue)
hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (MALES):
- regulated by negative feedback only
- GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) released from hypothalamus
- GnRH triggers release of FSH & LH (from anterior pituitary)
- increases spermatogenesis & testosterone
hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (FEMALE):
- regulated by negative & positive feedback
- GnRH from hypothalamus triggers release of FSH & development of dominant oocyte
- estrogen from oocyte stimulates proliferation of uterine lining
- high estrogen levels trigger high LH secretion
- high LH secretion triggers ovulation & development of a corpus lutem
- progesterone from the corpus luteum stimulates secretory phase in uterus
penis shaft anatomy:
- corpus cavernosa = 2 large columns on dorsal aspect of penis shaft
- corpus spongiosum = small column along the ventral aspect of the shaft that surrounds the urethra
- erectile tissue = spongy network of CT & smooth muscle; has open vascular caverns that fill w blood during an erection
Uterine (menstrual) cycle [general]:
- secretion of estrogen & progesterone from the ovaries during the ovarian cycle promote monthly changes seen in the endometrium of the uterus
phases:
1. menstrual phase (days 1-5) estrogen & progesterone levels drop when corpus luteum dies; stratum functionale of endometrium sheds; bleeding occurs
2. proliferative phase (day 6-14) estrogen from dominant follicle stimulates endometrium to regrow
3. secretory phase (day 15-28) progesterone from corpus luteum stimulates increased blood supply; stimulates glands to secrete nutrients to prepare for implantation of an oocyte
dartos muscle:
- wrinkles scrotal skin (rugae): smooth muscle pulls scrotum close to body
hCG hormone:
- fertilized egg implants in the endometrium = chorion (fetal part of placenta) secretes hCG (human chorionic gonadotropin)
- hCG stimulates the corpus luteum to continue to secrete progesterone, estrogen, & inhibit for the first 3 month of gestation
ectopic pregnancy:
- pregnancy is ectopic if implant occurs somewhere other than uterus
- implantation in uterine tube = tubal pregnancy (90% of all ectopic pregnancies)
- can lead to a rupture = internal hemorrhage in mother
enzyme hyaluronidase:
- contained in single membrane bound acrosome
- lytic enzyme
- dissolves hyaluronic acid (glue-like material which binds follicular cells around ovum)
phases of orgasm:
- orgasm (climax) = release of sperm
- resolution = muscular & psychological relaxation
- refractory (latent) = period during which another orgasm cannot be achieved
primary vs accessory reproductive organs:
- primary = gonads (testes & ovaries); homologous structures that produce sex cells & secrete steroid sex hormones
- accessory = duct systems (transport sperm/oocytes); glands (produce secretions); & external genitalia
prostate gland:
- secretes milky, slightly acid fluid (citrate), enzymes, & prostate-specific antigen (PSA) = play roles in sperm activation
bulbourethral gland (males) & similar structure in females:
- males: produces thick, clear mucus to lubricate spongy urethra during sexual arousal
- females: greater vestibular gland (aka bartholin glands)
ductus (vas) deferens:
- transports sperm to ejaculatory duct by peristalsis
time in ovulation when a woman is least likely to get pregnant:
- days 6-18
layers of testes:
- tunica vaginalis = outer layer derived from peritoneum
- tunica albuginea = inner layer; fibrous capsule
stages of labor:
- early labor: labor pains
- active labor: 10cm dilation, effacement
- fetal birth: crowning, fetal expulsion
- placental delivery
difference between fertilization & implatation:
- fertilization = occurs in infundibulum of uterine tubule
- implantation = occurs in endometrium lining in the uterus
processes of PCT region of nephron:
- Na+ is pumped out of tubule cell by Na+/K+ pump & enters peritubular capillaries
- Na+ in filtrate enters via a transport protein
- glucose & amino acids are cotransported with Na+
- water is reabsorbed through aquaporins by osmosis
- urea = lipid soluble waste product; follows water by sovlent drag
- Cl- & K+ & other ions passively reabsorbed down gradients
ovarian follicles:
- ovary is site of follicles
- follicle = oocyte & its surrounding cells
development of follicles:
1. primary follicles begin to develop @ puberty; several begin to grow during monthly cycle
2. vesicular (graafian) follicle has fluid-filled antrum & bulges from side of ovary
3. oocyte is ready to be ovulated
4. @ ovulation, vesicular follicle ruptures & oocyte is released
5. corpus luteum develops form ruptured follicle; secretes estrogen & progesterone
6. corpus luteum degenerates & forms a corpus albicans (scar tissue)
ABP hormone:
- adrogen-binding-protein
- FSH acts indirectly to stimulate sustentocytes to produce ABP
- this keeps testosterone levels high around the spermatogenic cells
Leydig endocrine cells:
- LH acts directly = stimulating interstitial Leydig cells to secrete testosterone
- this trigger spermatogenesis
uterine cycle [9 steps]:
- FSH & LH increase slightly = new follicles develop in the ovary
- estrogen & progesterone levels are low = menstruation occurs
- slightly elevated estrogen secretion inhibits LH & FSH secretion
- estrogen stimulates proliferative phase in uterus
- LH & FSH surges around day 14 due to high estrogen (positive feedback)
- LH surge triggers ovulation & development of corpus luteum
- corpus luteum secretes progesterone = secretory phase in uterus
- progesterone, estrogen, & inhibin inhibit GnRH, LH, & FSH secretion; prevents additional ovulations
- day 28 = corpus luteum dies releasing inhibition on GnRH, LH, & FSH
