Final Exam Chapters 15, 16, 17, 18 Flashcards
Cloning
Began with study of bacteria and bacteriophage
Bacteriophage
Virus that attacks bacteria
Recombinant DNA
1980’s, first constructed by Paul Berg, molecule that has DNA from both sources
Restriction Enzymes
Molecular scissors for DNA, use same enzyme on DNA vector and plasmid
Vector
Inserted into Plasmid
Hind III
Restriction Enzyme, produces sticky ends so vector can join plasmid tightly
Plasmid
Circular DNA from bacteria, carries foreign DNA into a host bacterial cell and replicates
Recombinant DNA
DNA that has foreign DNA spliced in it. If replicated, foreign DNA is cloned
Measurement of DNA
Weight in KB = Kilobases 1KB= 1000 kilobases
Genome
Total DNA in a cell
DNA Probing
Homologous to part of sequence of interest, segment of single stranded DNA that can hyberdize
Hyberdize
Attach by base pairing to complementary base sequences in target DNA
Polymerase Chain Reaction
developed by Kary Mullis in 1985, Replicating DNA outside your body using machine
Studying Genes
- Silence genes 1 at a time
2. Target genes “gene targetting”, produce knockout organism
Orthologous genes
Homologous genes found in different species inherited from same ancestor.
Transgenic Organism
Put foreign genes into plant or animals
ex. Genetically Modified Food
Chromosomes 1 and 21
1 should be the largest, 21 should be the smallest
Human Genome Project
Majority of human DNA has noncoding sequences, don’t know their function
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
Used during paternity test, determine how close individuals are genetically
Comparative Genomics
Compare genomes of different species
Metagenomics
Used to analyze communities of microorganisms instead of individual organisms
Polyploidy
Abnormalities in Chromosome. Multiple sets of chromosomes. Common in plants, rare in humans. Due to failure of chromosomes to separate during meiosis
Aneuploidies
either 1 extra or 1 less chromosome, failure of chromosomes to separate at anaphase.
Trisomy and Monomy are aneuploidies.
Sex Aneuploidies
Less severe than autosomal.
XO female can survive
OY male will not survive
XYY very aggressive male
Klinefelter Syndrome
XXY, male more feminine, produce little to no sperm, have breasts
Turners Syndrome
XO, underdeveloped female
XYY
Very developed male, lots of acne, criminal tendencies.
Inversion
Orientation of chromosome is reversed
Deletion
Loss of part of chromosome- Cri du chat
Baby sounds like kitten meowing when cries
Translocation
Fragment breaks off and attaches somewhere else. (ex. Down Syndrome)
Fragile Site
Place where chromatid appears to be attached by a thin thread to rest of chromosome.
Martin Bell Syndrome
Fragile X syndrome, person suffers from mental retardation. More common in females.
Phenileketonuria
Common in people of Western Europe descent, autosomal recessive, defect of amino acid metabolism
Sickle Cell Anemia
Autosomal recessive, common in African Americans, 1 in 500. Red blood cells are deformed, hemoglobin mutated. Valine replaced glutamic acid, caused mutation. Hemoglobin molecules stick to each other, can’t get malaria.
Cystic Fibrosis
Autosomal Recessive, children of European decent, 1 in 2500, body secretes more mucous which can block airways. Antibiotics, physical therapy.
Tay Sachs
Common Jews of European Descent. Autosomal recessive, causes blindness, mental retardation, symptoms between 1-2 years old. Enzymes don’t break down lipids, lipids accumulate in brain.
Huntingtons Disease
Autosomal Dominant, affects nervous system, personality changes, spasm in muscles, and death. Gene, repetition of CAG three times.
Hemophilia A
Disease of royalty, only happens in male descendants of Queen Victoria, sex linked, absence of blood clotting protein factor VIII (8), continue to bleed.
Zygote
After 5-6 days of cell division, have about 100 cells. Can harvest stem cells. 100 cells=blastocyte, not totipotent, called pluripotent
Pluripotent
Can’t form placenta
Morphogenesis
Development of form
Totipotent Cells
Potential to give rise to all parts of an organism, like stem cells, indifferentiated cells
Cell Differentiation
Cell specialization
Stem Cells
- Adult Stem Cells (from mom and umbilical cord)
From children - Embryos
Zygote- blastomere/blastocyte about 100 cells
Evolution
Accumulation of genetic changes within a population over time over many years
Population
Group of individuals of 1 species
Species
Group of organisms with similar structure, function, and behavior, all capable of interbreeding.
Minor Evolution
Microevolution, over a few generations
Major Evolution
Over long time, species formation
Bioremediation
Using microorganisms to clean up hazardous waste sites
Aristotle
384-322 B.C., developed scale of nature, categorized animals from small to big. Saw all organisms were imperfect but moving towards being perfect
Leonardo Davinci
1452-1519, one of few people to invent and take part in many things, interested in fossils, thought earth couldn’t be one year old.
Fossils
Remains preserved of something that died, river waves, Wooly Mammoths 25,000 years ago, microbes can not be preserved, nothing hard in it’s body
Darwin
Developed idea of natural selection, influences Charles Lyell
Charles Lyell
Thought earth had to be over 5,000 years old
Artificial Selection
Pick and choose genes, observed by Darwin, cabbage, cauliflower, brussel sprouts
Thomas Malthus
1766-1834, made Darwin think of natural selection, populations increase geometrically 1-2-4-8-16 Food Sources increase arithmatically 1-2-3-4-5 Population exceeds food supply- famine, disease
Adaptation
Evolutionary modification that improves chances of survival and reproductive success. Better adapted, survive and become parents of next generation.
Alfred Russel Wallace
1823-1913, came to same conclusions as Darwin on his own.
Darwins Evolution
Based on 4 things
Variation- Color, size, and population
Overproduction- More produced, more variation
Limits on Population Growth- Disease, predators, unfavorable weather
Differential Reproductive Success- Best characteristics survive, worst characteristics do not
Darwins Problem
Characteristics are passed on through genes. Genes not known by Darwin.
Modern Synthesis
Explain how genes act and how characteristics pass from parent to offspring, explained that mutations change in DNA, nucleotide sequence
Fossilization Requirements
Hard parts, quick burial, buried environment where there is no oxygen, have to have a rock like a sedimentary rock.
Determining Age of Fossils
Use Index Fossil- know it’s age and find it in many parts, quickly buried, short time.
Use Radio Isotopes- elements that emit radiation, uses element half life.
Use layers of stratification
Biogeography
Study of past and present geographic distribution of organisms.
Alfred Wagner
Continental Drift, Pangea, broke into 7 continents, 180 million years ago, 7 large plates float on mantel. Formed in Permian Period.
Homologous Structures
Structures from same ancestor
Convergent Evolution
Species with similar features but did not descend from a common ancestor (ex.Anteaters+Ardvarks)
Result in homoplastic (not homologous) (ex.Features in insects and birds)
Vestigial Structures
Parts of organs that seem nonfunctional or degenerate (ex.Hind legs in whales) More than 100 in human body (ex. 3rd molars, tailbone, muscles to move ears)
Half Lives
I-132 = 2.4 hours U-235 = 704 million years K-40 = 1.3 billion years C-14 = 5730 years, becomes N-14 after half life
