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Psychology 101 > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

What is psychology? How has the definition changed over time?

A

“science of mental life” was the first definition “science of observable behavior” was the second definition “the science of mental processes and behavior” is the current definition

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2
Q

Who is the father of psychology in the U.S.?

A

William James

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3
Q

Describe the scientific method

A

Observe – theorize – hypothesize – accept or refine theory

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4
Q

What is a theory?

A

fact-based framework for describing a phenomenon

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5
Q

What is a Hypothesis

A

a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables

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6
Q

What is a correlation?

A

Systematically measuring (Describing) the relationship between two variables

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7
Q

What is the primary weakness of the correlational method?

A

Correlation does not equal causation and Spurious relationships

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8
Q

control group

A

does not receive the “treatment” or alternative version of independent variable

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9
Q

experimental group

A

manipulation of one or more variables to observe the effect on behavior or mental processes using random assignment to control for relevant factors

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10
Q

Independant Variable

A

is the characteristic of a psychology experiment that is manipulated or changed.

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11
Q

Dependent Variable

A

the measured variable (e.g., level of aggression)

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12
Q

What is random assignment and why is it important?

A

Key to an experiment; each participant has an equal change of being assigned to the experimental and control conditions

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13
Q

EEG

A

Electroencephalogram (EEG) records electrical activity on brain’s surface Advantages? Fast, in real time, cheap Disadvantages? Can’t look at structure of the brain

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14
Q

MRI

A

MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging) and fMRI (functional MRI) MRI - Structure fMRI – Determines activity and function during information processing tasks

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15
Q

Three types of neurons

A

Sensory, motor, and interneurons

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16
Q

Sensory neurons

A

Carries sensory input to the brain

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17
Q

Motor neurons

A

Carries message from brain to muscles

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18
Q

Interneurons

A

Internal communication system (Middle men)

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19
Q

What is a neurotransmitter?

A

chemical messengers that crosses synaptic gap or synapse (tiny space between neurons; not always believed to exist)

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20
Q

What are the four areas of the cerebral cortex

A

Frontal Lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe

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21
Q

Frontal Lobe

A

responsible for decision making, personality, speaking, and planning

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22
Q

Parietal lobe

A

processes touch sensation, has sensory cortex, spatial awareness

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23
Q

Occipital lobe

A

processes visual input, visual sensations

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24
Q

Temporal lobe

A

deals with auditory sensations and language

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25
Q

High road processing

A

slow and thoughtful; “controlled processing” Really trying to study notes and paying attention

Something that takes a lot of effort Have a specific goal

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26
Q

Low road processing

A

fast and automatic processing

Driving

Taking notes In a busy place not paying attention to anything and you hear your name and respond even you weren’t paying attention to it

Don’t have a specific goal

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27
Q

What is nature

A

Genes
Biologically
Neurotransmitters
Hormones

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28
Q

What is nurture

A 
influence of expierence
Environment 
Background
Socialization 
Education
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29
Q

How much genetic material do human beings share with each other?

A

Humans are 99.95% genetically identical

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30
Q

What are the two categories of twin studiesq

A

Comparing identical to fraternal twins on agreeableness & Comparing identical twins raised together or apart on agreeableness

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31
Q

What was the overall conclusion of the Minnesota twins study (Bouchard, 2004)?

A

Most if not all of our psychological traits are inherited.

Finding that identical twins that were raised in different homes were very similar

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32
Q

What do adoption studies show with respect to nature and nurture influences on personality

A

Adults who were adopted will always be similar to their biological parents vs their adopted parents

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33
Q

According to evolutionary psychologists, how do mate selection strategies differ for men vs. women?

A

For men, furthering genes is about reproduction so they prefer/seek a mate favorable to that goal

furthering genes is about raising a healthy child (why?) so they prefer a mate favorable to that goal

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34
Q

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

A

Children around the same age tended to make the similar mistakes in reasoning
He believed that kids were as smart as adults but they just thought differently

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35
Q

Stages of cognitive development

A

1: Sensorimotor
2: Proporational
3: Concrete operational
4: Formal operational

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36
Q

Sensorimotor

A

From birth to 2 years

How do they understand the world?
Through their senses

Milestone: Object permanence
6 months or sooner
Object continues to exist even if it cant be seen

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37
Q

Proporational

A

Understands the world symbolically through words and images
Difficulty with mental operations – manipulate objects in the mind

For example, egocentrism- difficulty taking the perspective of another person
Exception to this is theory of mind in which child can take the emotional perspective of others

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38
Q

Concrete operational

A

From 7 to 12 years
Understanding of concrete mental operations
Problems with abstract (non-concrete) thinking
“if you could have a third eye where would you put it?”
Typical response: The back of your head

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39
Q

Formal operational

A

Formal operational
From 12 years on
Abstract thought and systematic reasoning
Form hypotheses and test them; can do brain teasers

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40
Q

How do children progress through above stages?

A

Drive to make sense underlies progress through stages

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41
Q

What the greatest strength of Piaget’s theory?

A

Sequence of cognitive milestones seems accurate across cultures

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42
Q

What is attachment

A

An emotional tie to something/someone

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43
Q

What is the purpose of attachment?

A

Because if they don’t attach to someone, they wont be protected

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44
Q

What are three types of attachment?

A

Secure attachment
Anxious-resistant
Avoidance attachment

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45
Q

What are the two parental behaviors that influence self-concept?

A

Warmth – affectionate, responding to a child’s emotional needs, spends considerable time (responsiveness)

Control – control child’s behavior, rules, punishment, and expectation

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46
Q

What is crystallized

intelligence

A

accumulated knowledge and verbal skills (prior learning and past experiences)

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47
Q

Fluid intelligence

A

ability to reason quickly and abstractly (new problems)

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48
Q

What is perception

A

process by which sensory information is organized and interpreted (made meaningful)

top down processing- guided by higher level mental processes

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49
Q

Sensation

A

process by which our nervous system receives and represents environmental stimuli

Sensation is bottom-up processing- begins with sensory receptors and works up to brain

50
Q

Sensory adaptation

A

diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus

51
Q

What is absolute threshold?

A

minimum stimulation to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

52
Q

Classical conditioning

A

a type of learning in which an organism associates two stimuli, such that one stimuli comes to elicit a response that was originally only naturally elicited by the other stimulus

53
Q

Who discovered classical conditioning

A

Pavlov

54
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

stimulus that elicits an innate response

Food

55
Q

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A

an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus without prior learning

Salivation to food

56
Q

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

initially a neutral stimulus. When paired with the UCS comes to elicit a conditioned response

Bell

57
Q

Conditioned response (CR)

A

a response elicited by the CS

Salivation to bel

58
Q

Operant conditioning

A

an organism forms associations between behavior and consequences of the behavior

If consequences are good…then the person will do the behavior again

If consequences are bad…then the person won’t do the behavior again

59
Q

what is a reinforcer?

A

something that increases the frequency of a behavior or response (reward)

60
Q

tangible reinforcer

A

Something you could grasp (food)

61
Q

non-tangible reinforcer

A

Something you cannot grasp (praise)

62
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

when a behavior or response is strengthened by presenting a pleasurable stimulus

63
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

when a behavior or response is strengthened by reducing or removing something unpleasant or undesirable

64
Q

What is memory?

A

Learned information that has been stored and can be retrieved

65
Q

How do researchers study memory

A

Recall
Recognition
Relearning

66
Q

How does age relate to performance on recognition vs recall tasks?

A

Recognition stays constant as we age while recall is better when we are young

People are overall better at recognition

This study asked people to recall class mates from 25 years earlier
One from a list
One from memory

67
Q

What is the misinformation effect (Loftus & Palmer, 1974)?

A

Has long studied fragility of memory, applying her research to eyewitness testimony and memory for traumatic experiences

68
Q

What are three ways researchers have identified that we solve problems?

A

Heuristics, algorithms, and insight

69
Q

functional fixedness

A

tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

70
Q

representativeness bias

A

Assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category

71
Q

availability bias

A

we judge likelihood of things in terms of how available in memory (vivid/recent)

72
Q

affective forecasting

A

the prediction of one’s affect (emotional state) in the future.

73
Q

What is motivation?

A

Something that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal

74
Q

Which part of the brain controls hunger?

A

The hypothalamus monitors appetite hormones

75
Q

What division of the nervous system is acting in fight or flight

A

Sympathetic

76
Q

What is anorexia nervosa

A

Excessive fear of gaining weight/becoming overweight

Sometimes engage in excessive exercise

May begin as a weight loss diet

Usually adolescents; mostly female

Fall significantly below normal body weight

77
Q

What is bulimia nervosa

A

May also be triggered by weight loss diet

Repeated (pattern of) binging and purging

Late teens, early 20s; mostly female

More common than Anorexia (NIMH, 2009)

78
Q

What are the three components of an emotion?

A

cognition, physiological responses, and behavioral reactions to events

79
Q

Which emotional expression seems universal according to cross-cultural research by Ekman and colleagues?

A

Surprise, anger, sadness, disgust, fear, and happiness

80
Q

How do prior experience, personality, and gender influence emotion detection abilities?

A

Experience - Physical abuse
Personality - Extraversion

More introverted - detect emotions better

Gender - Gender and “emotion literacy” Women

81
Q

What is happiness

A

a positive state of mind; also called subjective well-being

82
Q

What effects of happiness have been found in experimental research?

A

Flexible thinking, creativity, interest and exploration “Feel good, do good phenomenon”

83
Q

Describe two phenomena that have a large influence on our happiness

A

Adaptation level and relative deprivation

84
Q

Adaptation level

A

the tendency to judge stimuli relative to those we have previously experienced; means we will adapt quickly and the new thing will be the norm “We always recalibrate”

85
Q

Relative deprivation

A

sense that we are worse off than others

86
Q

What is personality?

A

a person’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

87
Q

What is the contemporary approach to personality?

A

Adult human personality reflects differences along five broad dimensions

88
Q

Who was Sigmund Freud?

A

Not a psychologist by training
Was a physician and wanted to become a neurologist
Developed his own theory of personality

89
Q

How did Freud think about the unconscious in a unique way?

A

He saw it as a reservoir of unacceptable resources. Where we thought of things that were too unacceptable to be said out loud

90
Q

Describe the three systems of personality according to Freud

A

Free association

Dream interpretation

Slips of the tongue

91
Q

Free association

A

relax, say whatever comes to mind

92
Q

Dream interpretation

A

believed dreams were the “royal road to the unconscious”

93
Q

Slips of the tongue

A

“faulty actions”; errors in speech, memory, or behavior

94
Q

What were the three interacting systems of personality according to Freud?

A

Id

Ego

Superego

95
Q

What is a psychological disorder

A

Persistently harmful thoughts, feelings, and behaviors

A pattern of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that are deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional

96
Q

What are three characteristics that determine difference between unusual behavior and abnormal behavior?

A

Deviant
Distressful
Dysfunction

97
Q

Deviant

A

different from most others in a particular culture

98
Q

Distressful

A

is it pleasant or unpleasant for the person

99
Q

Dysfunction

A

does it affect one’s life in a negative way

100
Q

What is the biopsychosocial perspective

A

biological, psychological, and social factors to psychological disorders

101
Q

Psychological factors in biopsychosocial perspective

A 
¥	Self-esteem
¥	Coping
¥	Personality
¥	Perceived control
¥	Explanatory style
¥	Optimism
¥	Resilience
102
Q

Biological factors in biopsychosocial perspective

A 
¥	Brain chemistry and physiology
¥	Genetics and heredity 
¥	Brain damage
¥	Physical health (e.g., poor nutrition, inadequate sleep)
¥	Medication or drug use
103
Q

Social factors in biopsychosocial perspective

A 
¥	Social support
¥	Socioeconomic status (SES)
¥	Life events/ stressors
¥	Cultural beliefs
¥	Societal expectations
Perceived racism
104
Q

How does a biomedical model not fit psychological disorders?

A

• Because most psychological disorders are not caused by a pathogen or other medical cause

105
Q

What were some good things about the biomedical view of psychological disorders (e.g., what models did it replace?

A

• Replaced older models that were stigmatizing such as moral model or religious models
Led to drug discovery

106
Q

what happened to institutionalization under the biomedical model?

A

less institutionalization due to drug discovery

107
Q

What is the DSM-5

A

• American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of psychological disorders

108
Q

How are diagnoses made according to DSM-5?

A

• Defines process of diagnosis for 16 clinical syndromes

109
Q

What is bipolar disorder

A

• Altering between depressive manic states

110
Q

What has happened to the prevalence of this disorder

A

• The diagnoses have shot up by 40x

o Mainly Young males

111
Q

What is major depressive disorder

A

The common cold of psychological disorders
- The number one reason people seek mental health services
- Five or more of the following symptoms for at least two weeks
(one has to be a depressed mood or a loss of pleasure (APA, 2000).

112
Q

What are its symptoms/diagnostic criteria?

A
  1. Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day
  2. Diminished interest in pleasurable activities
  3. Significant weight loss or gain (5% of body weight)
  4. Insomnia or hypersomnia
  5. Psychomotor agitation or retardation
  6. Fatigue or loss of energy
  7. Feelings of worthlessness or inappropriate guilt
  8. Diminished ability to think
  9. Recurrent thoughts of death or suicide ideation
113
Q

What has research in the last 25 years found regarding depression?

A

¥ Depression is accompanied by behavioral and cognitive changes meaning…
¥ Depression is prevalent- nearly 10% of Americans experienced a mood disorder (NIMH, 2008)
¥ Women are twice as likely to experience depressive disorder
¥ Most people recover without professional help
¥ Recurrence (half will have depression reoccur within the next 2 years)
¥ Can be triggered by environmental events (Kendler et al., 2006)
¥ Can have biological predisposition

114
Q

What biological factors have been identified in depression?

A
  • Heritability and genetics
  • Depression shows heritability
  • Genetics seems to be a profile but it’s not one gene rather a set of genes and researchers don’t know which ones
115
Q

Which neurotransmitters have been identified?

A

• Two neurotransmitters have been implicated (Davidson, 1998)
o Norepinephrine- increases arousal, also boost mood
o Serotonin- influences direct or indirectly almost every brain cell; motivation, mood, appetite, sexual desire, sleep, memory, temperature regulation etc.

116
Q

What social and psychological factors have been identified in depression (e.g., negative explanatory style)?

A

Ð Stressful events (social)
¥ E.g., Death of a spouse, divorce, loss of job, financial strain etc.
Ð Psychological characteristics make it difficult to break depression cycle
¥ E.g., self-esteem, personality, perceived control, particular way of thinking

117
Q

What are the five types of anxiety disorders

A

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Panic Disorder

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Phobia

118
Q

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

A

o In a state of almost constant autonomic arousal

o An individual is continually tense and uneasy, jittery, agitated, and sleep deprived

119
Q

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

A

o characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and actions (compulsions)

120
Q

Panic Disorder

A

o anxiety comes and goes suddenly
o Panic attacks – minutes long duration in which fear something horrible is going to occur
o shortness of breath, heart palpitations, choking sensations, dizziness, and trembling, i.e., autonomic arousal

121
Q

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

A

o characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and insomnia

122
Q

Phobia

A

o persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation
o going great lengths to avoid a feared thing
o when presented with one’s phobia, causes autonomic arousal and panic

Psychology 101 (5 decks)

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