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Psychology 101 > Exam 2 > Flashcards

Exam 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is nature

A

Genes
Biologically
Neurotransmitters
Hormones

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2
Q

What is nurture

A 
influence of expierence
Environment 
Background
Socialization 
Education
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3
Q

What do behavior geneticists study?

A

interdisciplinary field that examines the relative importance of hereditary influence versus environment influence on behavior

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4
Q

What are genes; how many in the human body? How do we know this?

A

biochemical units of heredity coded for specific traits; physical, mental traits and some aspects of behavior

How many genes?
20,000-25,000

Human Genome Project

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5
Q

How much genetic material do human beings share with each other?

A

Humans are 99.95% genetically identical

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6
Q

How do genes determine traits? (hint: two characteristics of genes we talked about)

A

Gene expression- active or inactive

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7
Q

What are the two categories of twin studies? Understand how they allow researchers to control for the effects of nature vs. nurture

A

Comparing identical to fraternal twins on agreeableness
Concordance rate?
If concordance rate between identical twin set is higher than rate between fraternal twin set, that would suggest that the trait is more heavily influenced by nature

Comparing identical twins raised together or apart on agreeableness
If concordance rate between identical twin set raised together is not different from the rate of twin set raised apart, that would suggest the trait is more heavily influenced by nature
Nurture did not change the concordance rate

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8
Q

What was the overall conclusion of the Minnesota twins study (Bouchard, 2004)?

A

Most if not all of our psychological traits are inherited.

Finding that identical twins that were raised in different homes were very similar

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9
Q

What is heritability? What did the Twin study find with regard to heritability of personality (the numerical estimates)? Of cognitive ability? Of psychological disorders?

A

extent to which variation between people can be attributed to genetics

0% means no influence of genes, 100% completely due to genes

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10
Q

Describe four critiques of the Minnesota twin study

A

Strong argument for nature but not for nurture
People looking for (even unusual) similarities can find them
Some of the twins spent a lot of time together before the study
Some shared same physical appearance making people react to them in the same way
Adoption agencies placement of babies (typically placed in similar SES homes)

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11
Q

What do adoption studies (siblings, adoptive vs. biological parents) show with respect to nature and nurture influences on personality? What about attitudes and values?

A

Adults who were adopted will always be similar to their biological parents vs their adopted parents

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12
Q

Describe the two key periods in the womb when hormonal influences are acting on males and females; what are the hormones doing during these two different periods?

A

At 7 weeks, genes activate our 23rd pair of chromosomes; male determines sex

During 4th and 5th month
Hormones are released and act on the brain
These hormones may account for some developmental differences and female adult brain

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13
Q

What is gender? What are gender roles? Are they driven more by nature or nurture, and how do we know? Describe how they interact to influence social behavior (aggressive versus pretend play)

A

biological and social characteristics by which people define male and female
Represents interaction of nature and nurture

Nurture because gender roles have changed across time and they are different across cultures
Women in the 50’s were the nurturers and the men went to work and made money. And now fathers are more involved in the family life

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14
Q

According to evolutionary psychologists, how and why do mate selection strategies differ for men versus women?

A

For men, furthering genes is about reproduction so they prefer/seek a mate favorable to that goal

furthering genes is about raising a healthy child (why?) so they prefer a mate favorable to that goal

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15
Q

What did David Buss do (i.e., what was his method and findings)?

A

The man that conducted the mating study

Seek to describe, explain, and study our similar thoughts and behavior through natural selection

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16
Q

What did the experiment by Townsend & Levy (1990) find? Clark and Hatfield (1989, 1990)?

A

Townsend and Levy Found that Men were attracted to the attractive woman regardless of outfit
Women tended to be more attracted to the high SES male regardless of his physical attractiveness

Clark and Hatfield found men were more likely to have sex/go back to an apartment with someone else than women who would have rather go on a date

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17
Q

What is conception?

A

Moment in time when sperm fertilizes the egg

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18
Q

Define zygote, embryo, fetus; how many zygotes survive 2 weeks

A

Zygote - fertilized egg. Survival is 50%
Embryo - 2-8 week fetus
Fetus - 9 weeks to birth

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19
Q

What is a teratogen? Be familiar with the examples I gave in class

A

chemicals/viral substances that can be passed to the fetus

Consequences of nicotine, alcohol

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20
Q

What did Williams James think about babies’ cognitive and other abilities?

A

Their information processing was very low

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21
Q

What is habituation? Why are habituation studies used with infants and young babies?

A

a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations

Infants focus on the face rather than body

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22
Q

What have studies found regarding newborns and young babies’ senses and preferences? How do these senses and preferences facilitate survival?

A

Infants focus on the face rather than body

To see if the face is someone they are familiar with and can be trusted

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23
Q

What do researchers argue about our neurons and neural connections when we are born?

A

That Most of the brain cells you will ever have present at birth!

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24
Q

When does the most neural development unfold?

A

At birth

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25
Q

What happens to the brain soon after puberty?

A

A pruning process

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26
Q

What is infantile amnesia? Why does it exist according to contemporary thought?

A

most of us cant remember things before 3.5 years

Because the brain changes so much during the first few years

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27
Q

What did Rovee-Collier do and find?

A

Tying a string to a babies ankle that moves a mobile and then taking the string away for a while and bringing it back later on to see if the baby remembers how to use it

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28
Q

Piaget’s Theory of cognitive development: Be familiar with each stage, errors that kids make, and the major milestones that are achieved

A

Children around the same age tended to make the similar mistakes in reasoning
He believed that kids were as smart as adults but they just thought differently

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29
Q

Stages of cognitive development

A

1: Sensorimotor
2: Proporational
3: Concrete operational
4: Formal operational

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30
Q

Sensorimotor

A

From birth to 2 years

How do they understand the world?
Through their senses

Milestone: Object permanence
6 months or sooner
Object continues to exist even if it cant be seen

31
Q

Proporational

A

Understands the world symbolically through words and images
Difficulty with mental operations – manipulate objects in the mind

For example, egocentrism- difficulty taking the perspective of another person
Exception to this is theory of mind in which child can take the emotional perspective of others

32
Q

Concrete operational

A

From 7 to 12 years
Understanding of concrete mental operations
Problems with abstract (non-concrete) thinking
“if you could have a third eye where would you put it?”
Typical response: The back of your head

33
Q

Formal operational

A

From 12 years on
Abstract thought and systematic reasoning
Form hypotheses and test them; can do brain teasers

34
Q

According to Piaget, how do children progress through the cognitive stages? (Define schema, assimilation, and accommodation)

A

Drive to make sense underlies progress through stages
We make sense of world via schemas
Schemas- frameworks organize and interpret information
Assimilation – interpret new information in terms of existing schemas
Accommodation – adjust schema to incorporate new information

35
Q

What is theory of mind?

A

child can take the emotional perspective of others

36
Q

What is the greatest strength of Piaget’s theory? What are the criticisms?

A

Sequence of cognitive milestones seems accurate across cultures

However
Children may enter “stages” at earlier ages
Infants are smarter than Piaget argued
The social environment was ignored

37
Q

What is attachment? What is the purpose of attachment?

A

An emotional tie to something/someone

Because if they don’t attach to someone, they wont be protected

38
Q

What is separation anxiety? When does it peak?

A

intense distress of infants when separated from caregiver; peaks between 8-12 months of age

39
Q

What did Bowlby say was the question that the attachment system asks?

A

“Is the caregiver nearby accessible, and attentive?’’

40
Q

What parental behavior did Ainsworth find was most important to attachment? What three characteristics go into this quality?

A

Responsiveness

Sensitive to children’s emotional needs, show affection, and spend considerable time with them

41
Q

How do researchers systematically measure attachment in young children?

A

Behavior in strange situations- laboratory novel situation

42
Q

What are three types of attachment styles according to Ainsworth’s research? Know characteristics of each style of attachment

A

Secure attachment
Anxious-resistant
Avoidance attachment

43
Q

How many American children show secure attachment (know percentages)?

A

60% - secure attachment
10%-15% - Anxious resistant
20%-25% - avoidance

44
Q

What does experimental research with monkeys and attachment show with regard to insecure attachments and strange situations?

A

Monkeys who are insecurely attached show extreme effects in strange situations

45
Q

Does attachment when we are young influence our adult love relationships? Be familiar with findings of Hazan and Shaver (1986, 1987) as well as criticisms of this work

A

significant associations between parent-child attachment style and adult love relationships

Characteristics of adult love relationships for secure attachment with parents; insecure attachment; avoidance attachment

46
Q

What are consequences of interrupted attachment or never having formed attachment? What is the important age by which attachment needs to be formed?

A

Emotional problems, withdrawn behavior, cognitive delays

2 years old

47
Q

What is self-concept? By what age does it begin to form, and when is it stable?

A

Answer to the question ‘who am I’?

2 years

By age 8-10, self-concept is relatively stable

48
Q

What are the two parental behaviors that influence the development of self-concept?

A

Warmth – affectionate, responding to a child’s emotional needs, spends considerable time (responsiveness)

Control – control child’s behavior, rules, punishment, and expectations

49
Q

Which parenting style is associated with the most competent children? the least competent children? (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2006)

A

Authoritative

50
Q

What have researchers found regarding differences for memory in older versus younger adults?

A

As we age, physical abilities decline
Cognitive changes
Memory: recall vs. recognition

51
Q

What is crystallized intelligence? What is fluid intelligence? How do they relate to age?

A

Crystallized intelligence – accumulated knowledge and verbal skills (prior learning and past experiences)

Fluid intelligence – ability to reason quickly and abstractly (new problems)

Which would older adults perform better on?
Crystallized

52
Q

What are Kohlberg’s three stages of moral reasoning?

A

Preconventional
Conventional
Postconventional

53
Q

Secure attachment

A

plays happily, upset when mom leaves, and happy when she returns

54
Q

Insecure attachment

A

-nervously explores, upset when mom leaves, upset when she returns

55
Q

Anxious-resistant

A

Indifferent

56
Q

Authoritative

A

Positive self-concept, high self-esteem, high motivation, and high achievement

57
Q

Authoritarian

A

Unhappy, low self-esteem, and overly aggressive

58
Q

Permissive

A

Positive self-concept, high self esteem, specific competencies, achievement in some areas

59
Q

Neglectful

A

low self-esteem, low self-concept, low achievement, and delinquent

60
Q

Sensation

A

process by which our nervous system receives and represents environmental stimuli

Sensation is bottom-up processing- begins with sensory receptors and works up to brain

61
Q

Perception

A

process by which sensory information is organized and interpreted (made meaningful)

Perception is top down processing- guided by higher level mental processes

62
Q

absolute threshold

A

minimum stimulation to detect a stimulus 50% of the time

63
Q

Signal detection theory

A

there is no real constant absolute threshold; it depends on experience, expectations, motivation at time

64
Q

Sensory adaptation

A

diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus

65
Q

Cornea

A

where light first comes in; bends and focuses the light

66
Q

Pupil and iris

A

dilate or constrict in response to light

67
Q

Lens

A

further adjusts and focuses

68
Q

Retina

A

here light is transformed into neural impulses that are sent to the brain

Sparked by chemical changes triggered by rods and cones

69
Q

Functions of rods and cones

A

Rods – sensitive to light (120 M)

Cones – sensitive to color (6.4 M)

70
Q

What does light wavelength and amplitude determine in vision?

A

Wavelength (color) and amplitude (brightness)

71
Q

Young- Helmholtz Trichromatic theory

A

Retina contains three different color receptors that when stimulated in varying combinations produce the perception of any color

72
Q

Opponent-process theory

A

cone cells have an opponent; tiring one out leads to us seeing the opponent
Red-green
Blue-yellow
Black-white

73
Q

Criticisms of Hazan and Shaver

A

Examining retrospective reports of parent-child attachment

No longitudinal studies

Psychology 101 (5 decks)

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