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Psychology 101 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Learning

A

a process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or capabilities

A change based on experience

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2
Q

Classical conditioning

A

a type of learning in which an organism associates two stimuli, such that one stimuli comes to elicit a response that was originally only naturally elicited by the other stimulus

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3
Q

Who discovered classical conditioning

A

Pavlov

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4
Q

How was classical conditioning discovered

A

Accidentally when Dogs would salivate when they heard footsteps because they associated footsteps with food

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5
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

stimulus that elicits an innate response

Food

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6
Q

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A

an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus without prior learning

Salivation to food

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7
Q

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

initially a neutral stimulus. When paired with the UCS comes to elicit a conditioned response

Bell

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8
Q

Conditioned response (CR)

A

a response elicited by the CS

Salivation to bell

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9
Q

Sequence of US and CS

A

The purpose of learned associations…

Associations may help us predict what’s coming; if bell comes after food, then its not predictive

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10
Q

Extinction

A

diminished response when CS no longer signals the US

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11
Q

Extinction in Pavlov’s experiements

A

When the bell was presented continuously without food, saliva in response to bell would eventually diminish

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12
Q

Spontaneous recovery

in Pavlov’s experiements

A

Concluded associations may never really go away, just weaken

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13
Q

Generalization

A

tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar

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14
Q

Generalization in Pavlov’s experiements

A

It didn’t matter if he used different sounding bells

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15
Q

Discrimination in Pavlov’e experiments

A

Discrimination learned after multiple pairings

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16
Q

Problems with Pavlov’s experiments (Antabuse)

A

A medication for people with alcoholism as a last resort. If someone takes it and they take a sip of alcohol they will get very sick

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17
Q

What did watson show with little albert

A

That emotions can be classically conditioned in people

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18
Q

What were the ethical issues with watson’s research?

A

Yes because they created a phobia in a baby

And he didn’t do anything to get rid of the phobia

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19
Q

What happened to Albert?

A

Watson did nothing to decondition his fear

The boy had hydrocephalus, and died in 1926 (6 years old); was not the healthy infant he was portrayed to be

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20
Q

Exposure therapy

A

repeatedly present CS without UCS

Overcoming fear (Jones, 1924) of rabbit using exposure

Rabbit anywhere in room triggers fear
Rabbit 12 feet away tolerated
Rabbit 3 fee away tolerated
Rabbit close in cage tolerated
Rabbit free in room tolerated
Rabbit touched when free in room
Rabbit allowed in tray of high chair
Holds rabbit on lap
Lets rabbit nibble his fingers
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21
Q

Aversion therapy

A

exposing an individual to a stimulus they have learned to like (CS) and then a stimulus that naturally triggers an aversive response (UCS)

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22
Q

Aversion therapy example

A

Reducing craving of cocaine addiction (Bordnick et al., 2004)
70 individuals with cocaine addictions
Snort placebo cocaine; followed by either a shock (faradic), nausea and vomiting (emetine), anxious or nauseating essay (Covert), or relax

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23
Q

Counterconditioning

A

when a CS is presented at the same time as another stimulus (UCS) that elicits an incompatible response

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24
Q

Counterconditioning example

A 
Overcoming fear (Jones, 1924) of rabbit using counterconditioning
Presenting the boy with milk and cookies every time the rabbit is in the room (presenting a UCS that is positive)
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25
Operant conditioning
an organism forms associations between behavior and consequences of the behavior If consequences are good…then the person will do the behavior again If consequences are bad…then the person won’t do the behavior again
26
How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning
Voluntary behavior in OC versus involuntary behavior in CC There are incentives in OC but not CC Learning is more passive in CC, active in OC
27
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
rewarded behavior is likely to re-occur
28
Skinner box
animal produces some type of behavior; gets reward; behaviors recorded outside box
29
Shaping
gradually guiding an animals behavior toward a goal (lever press)
30
Reinforcer
something that increases the frequency of a behavior or response (reward)
31
tangible reinforcer
Something you could grasp (food)
32
non-tangible reinforcer
Something you cannot grasp (praise)
33
Positive reinforcement
when a behavior or response is strengthened by presenting a pleasurable stimulus
34
Negative reinforcement
when a behavior or response is strengthened by reducing or removing something unpleasant or undesirable
35
How does reinforcement Differ from punishment
Punishment is about decreasing a behavior by making them do/experience something they don’t like
36
Intermittent Reinforcement
reinforcement varies by number of responses and time
37
Fixed ratio reinforcement and example
reinforcing every set of responses Free sub after 10 sub purchases
38
Variable ratio Reinforcement and example
reinforcing after an unpredictable number of responses Slot machines a person wins every so often (unpredictable)
39
Fixed Interval Reinforcement and example
reinforce the first response after a fixed amount of time has passed Tuesday discount prices
40
Continuous Reinforcement
every response is reinforced
41
Continuous Reinforcement EX
Pop machines
42
Variable Interval reinforcement and example
reinforce the first response after an unpredictable amount has passed Randomly checking email
43
Which leads to behaviors that are easily extinguished, or very difficult to extinguish?
Behaviors that are reinforced on an unpredictable schedule, those are the most difficult to extinguish
44
What are some distinctions between memory and learning?
Memory is not necessarily permanent Memory is not observable but can still be empirically measured Learning comes from behaviorist school while memory comes from cognitive school
45
What is memory
Learned information that has been stored and can be retrieved
46
What are the steps memory
Encode Storage Retrieval
47
Encode
Learning
48
Storage
Holding information
49
Retrieval
Ability to get the information out
50
Three models of memory
Computer 3-stage process Modified 3-stage process
51
Computer model
Memory is like a computer; information translated into language by the brain and then stored and retrieved as needed
52
Computer Model Problems
Biases Type of processing difference Our storage is unlimited
53
3-stage process Model
We record information as sensory memories; fractions to several seconds Memories are processed further in STM; up to 30 sec If rehearsed, they move to LTM; up to lifetime
54
3-stage process Model problems
Information does not have to proceed through the first two stems Flashbulb memories – vivid, long lasting memories surrounding a person’s discovery of a shocking event
55
Modified 3 stage process model
Recognizes that some information slips in to long-term memory and that short-term memory is working memory
56
Sensory memory
We record information as sensory memories; fractions to several seconds
57
Short-term memory
Memories are processed further in STM; up to 30 sec
58
Long-term memory
If rehearsed, they move to LTM; up to lifetime
59
Flashbulb memories
vivid, long lasting memories surrounding a person’s discovery of a shocking event
60
How is working or short-term and working memory limited in terms of capacity and duration?
Capacity - “Magical Number 7, plus or minus 2” Humans max out at about 7 pieces of new information to take in at one time
61
Implicit Memory
prior memories that may influence you but cannon consciously recall or verbally communicate Procedural memory – memory for action or skills
62
Procedural memory
memory for action or skills
63
Explicit memory
conscious recollection of facts and events; can be verbally communicated (declarative memory)
64
Where does memory reside in the brain?
Hippocampus Cerebellum Amygdala
65
Hippocampus
important for new explicit information; “loading dock”
66
Cerebellum
important for implicit memories
67
Amygdala
emotional memories
68
What is long-term potentiation?
show…increased firing potential across the brain when new information is encoded
69
How do researchers study retrieval (three ways)?
Recall Recognition Relearning
70
In general, how does performance on tests of recall relate to performance on tests of recognition (e.g., what did the study by Bahrick, (1975) do and find)?
Recognition stays constant as we age while recall is better when we are young People are overall better at recognition This study asked people to recall class mates from 25 years earlier One from a list One from memory
71
What is a retrieval cue
are stimuli that help you retrieve a certain memory
72
What are the best retrieval cues?
Context effect
73
What is a context effect (e.g., what did Godden & Baddeley (1975) do and find)?
describes the influence of environmental factors on one's perception of a stimulus
74
What applied areas has Loftus extended the misinformation effect to?
Has long studied fragility of memory, applying her research to eyewitness testimony and memory for traumatic experiences
75
Concept
The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating Basic unit of congnition
76
Prototype
the best example of a given concept
77
What is the purpose of concepts?
Help us organize information and make communication much easier
78
What is the purpose of prototypes?
The more something represents our prototype, the faster we are at recognizing it as an example of the concept
79
Heuristics
mental shortcuts; efficient, but can lead to errors
80
Algorithms
methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a problem
81
Insight
“Aha!” sudden and often novel realization of the solution
82
Confirmation bias
The tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore contradictory evidence
83
Functional fixedness
tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions
84
Functional fixedness Examples
Matchbox, candle, and tacks example
85
representativeness bias/hueristic and examples
Assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category Tied in with stereotypes and judging people based on what we hear about others that may look like them
86
availability bias/hueristic and examples
we judge likelihood of things in terms of how available in memory (vivid/recent) After 9/11 many Americans were afraid of terrorist attacks
87
impact bias/hueristic and examples
tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of emotions Winning the lottery & Experiencing severe disability
88
Discrimination
the ability to perceive and respond to differences among stimuli

Psychology 101 (5 decks)

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