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Psychology 101 > Exam 3 > Flashcards

Exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q

Learning

A

a process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or capabilities

A change based on experience

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2
Q

Classical conditioning

A

a type of learning in which an organism associates two stimuli, such that one stimuli comes to elicit a response that was originally only naturally elicited by the other stimulus

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3
Q

Who discovered classical conditioning

A

Pavlov

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4
Q

How was classical conditioning discovered

A

Accidentally when Dogs would salivate when they heard footsteps because they associated footsteps with food

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5
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

stimulus that elicits an innate response

Food

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6
Q

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A

an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus without prior learning

Salivation to food

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7
Q

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

initially a neutral stimulus. When paired with the UCS comes to elicit a conditioned response

Bell

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8
Q

Conditioned response (CR)

A

a response elicited by the CS

Salivation to bell

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9
Q

Sequence of US and CS

A

The purpose of learned associations…

Associations may help us predict what’s coming; if bell comes after food, then its not predictive

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10
Q

Extinction

A

diminished response when CS no longer signals the US

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11
Q

Extinction in Pavlov’s experiements

A

When the bell was presented continuously without food, saliva in response to bell would eventually diminish

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12
Q

Spontaneous recovery

in Pavlov’s experiements

A

Concluded associations may never really go away, just weaken

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13
Q

Generalization

A

tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar

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14
Q

Generalization in Pavlov’s experiements

A

It didn’t matter if he used different sounding bells

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15
Q

Discrimination in Pavlov’e experiments

A

Discrimination learned after multiple pairings

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16
Q

Problems with Pavlov’s experiments (Antabuse)

A

A medication for people with alcoholism as a last resort. If someone takes it and they take a sip of alcohol they will get very sick

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17
Q

What did watson show with little albert

A

That emotions can be classically conditioned in people

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18
Q

What were the ethical issues with watson’s research?

A

Yes because they created a phobia in a baby

And he didn’t do anything to get rid of the phobia

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19
Q

What happened to Albert?

A

Watson did nothing to decondition his fear

The boy had hydrocephalus, and died in 1926 (6 years old); was not the healthy infant he was portrayed to be

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20
Q

Exposure therapy

A

repeatedly present CS without UCS

Overcoming fear (Jones, 1924) of rabbit using exposure

Rabbit anywhere in room triggers fear
Rabbit 12 feet away tolerated
Rabbit 3 fee away tolerated
Rabbit close in cage tolerated
Rabbit free in room tolerated
Rabbit touched when free in room
Rabbit allowed in tray of high chair
Holds rabbit on lap
Lets rabbit nibble his fingers
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21
Q

Aversion therapy

A

exposing an individual to a stimulus they have learned to like (CS) and then a stimulus that naturally triggers an aversive response (UCS)

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22
Q

Aversion therapy example

A

Reducing craving of cocaine addiction (Bordnick et al., 2004)
70 individuals with cocaine addictions
Snort placebo cocaine; followed by either a shock (faradic), nausea and vomiting (emetine), anxious or nauseating essay (Covert), or relax

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23
Q

Counterconditioning

A

when a CS is presented at the same time as another stimulus (UCS) that elicits an incompatible response

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24
Q

Counterconditioning example

A 
Overcoming fear (Jones, 1924) of rabbit using counterconditioning
Presenting the boy with milk and cookies every time the rabbit is in the room (presenting a UCS that is positive)
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25
Q

Operant conditioning

A

an organism forms associations between behavior and consequences of the behavior

If consequences are good…then the person will do the behavior again

If consequences are bad…then the person won’t do the behavior again

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26
Q

How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning

A

Voluntary behavior in OC versus involuntary behavior in CC

There are incentives in OC but not CC

Learning is more passive in CC, active in OC

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27
Q

Thorndike’s Law of Effect

A

rewarded behavior is likely to re-occur

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28
Q

Skinner box

A

animal produces some type of behavior; gets reward; behaviors recorded outside box

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29
Q

Shaping

A

gradually guiding an animals behavior toward a goal (lever press)

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30
Q

Reinforcer

A

something that increases the frequency of a behavior or response (reward)

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31
Q

tangible reinforcer

A

Something you could grasp (food)

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32
Q

non-tangible reinforcer

A

Something you cannot grasp (praise)

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33
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

when a behavior or response is strengthened by presenting a pleasurable stimulus

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34
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

when a behavior or response is strengthened by reducing or removing something unpleasant or undesirable

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35
Q

How does reinforcement Differ from punishment

A

Punishment is about decreasing a behavior by making them do/experience something they don’t like

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36
Q

Intermittent Reinforcement

A

reinforcement varies by number of responses and time

37
Q

Fixed ratio reinforcement and example

A

reinforcing every set of responses

Free sub after 10 sub purchases

38
Q

Variable ratio Reinforcement and example

A

reinforcing after an unpredictable number of responses

Slot machines a person wins every so often (unpredictable)

39
Q

Fixed Interval Reinforcement and example

A

reinforce the first response after a fixed amount of time has passed

Tuesday discount prices

40
Q

Continuous Reinforcement

A

every response is reinforced

41
Q

Continuous Reinforcement EX

A

Pop machines

42
Q

Variable Interval reinforcement and example

A

reinforce the first response after an unpredictable amount has passed

Randomly checking email

43
Q

Which leads to behaviors that are easily extinguished, or very difficult to extinguish?

A

Behaviors that are reinforced on an unpredictable schedule, those are the most difficult to extinguish

44
Q

What are some distinctions between memory and learning?

A

Memory is not necessarily permanent

Memory is not observable but can still be empirically measured

Learning comes from behaviorist school while memory comes from cognitive school

45
Q

What is memory

A

Learned information that has been stored and can be retrieved

46
Q

What are the steps memory

A

Encode
Storage
Retrieval

47
Q

Encode

A

Learning

48
Q

Storage

A

Holding information

49
Q

Retrieval

A

Ability to get the information out

50
Q

Three models of memory

A

Computer
3-stage process
Modified 3-stage process

51
Q

Computer model

A

Memory is like a computer; information translated into language by the brain and then stored and retrieved as needed

52
Q

Computer Model Problems

A

Biases
Type of processing difference
Our storage is unlimited

53
Q

3-stage process Model

A

We record information as sensory memories; fractions to several seconds
Memories are processed further in STM; up to 30 sec
If rehearsed, they move to LTM; up to lifetime

54
Q

3-stage process Model problems

A

Information does not have to proceed through the first two stems
Flashbulb memories – vivid, long lasting memories surrounding a person’s discovery of a shocking event

55
Q

Modified 3 stage process model

A

Recognizes that some information slips in to long-term memory and that short-term memory is working memory

56
Q

Sensory memory

A

We record information as sensory memories; fractions to several seconds

57
Q

Short-term memory

A

Memories are processed further in STM; up to 30 sec

58
Q

Long-term memory

A

If rehearsed, they move to LTM; up to lifetime

59
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

vivid, long lasting memories surrounding a person’s discovery of a shocking event

60
Q

How is working or short-term and working memory limited in terms of capacity and duration?

A

Capacity - “Magical Number 7, plus or minus 2”

Humans max out at about 7 pieces of new information to take in at one time

61
Q

Implicit Memory

A

prior memories that may influence you but cannon consciously recall or verbally communicate

Procedural memory – memory for action or skills

62
Q

Procedural memory

A

memory for action or skills

63
Q

Explicit memory

A

conscious recollection of facts and events; can be verbally communicated (declarative memory)

64
Q

Where does memory reside in the brain?

A

Hippocampus
Cerebellum
Amygdala

65
Q

Hippocampus

A

important for new explicit information; “loading dock”

66
Q

Cerebellum

A

important for implicit memories

67
Q

Amygdala

A

emotional memories

68
Q

What is long-term potentiation?

A

show…increased firing potential across the brain when new information is encoded

69
Q

How do researchers study retrieval (three ways)?

A

Recall
Recognition
Relearning

70
Q

In general, how does performance on tests of recall relate to performance on tests of recognition (e.g., what did the study by Bahrick, (1975) do and find)?

A

Recognition stays constant as we age while recall is better when we are young

People are overall better at recognition

This study asked people to recall class mates from 25 years earlier
One from a list
One from memory

71
Q

What is a retrieval cue

A

are stimuli that help you retrieve a certain memory

72
Q

What are the best retrieval cues?

A

Context effect

73
Q

What is a context effect (e.g., what did Godden & Baddeley (1975) do and find)?

A

describes the influence of environmental factors on one’s perception of a stimulus

74
Q

What applied areas has Loftus extended the misinformation effect to?

A

Has long studied fragility of memory, applying her research to eyewitness testimony and memory for traumatic experiences

75
Q

Concept

A

The mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Basic unit of congnition

76
Q

Prototype

A

the best example of a given concept

77
Q

What is the purpose of concepts?

A

Help us organize information and make communication much easier

78
Q

What is the purpose of prototypes?

A

The more something represents our prototype, the faster we are at recognizing it as an example of the concept

79
Q

Heuristics

A

mental shortcuts; efficient, but can lead to errors

80
Q

Algorithms

A

methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a problem

81
Q

Insight

A

“Aha!” sudden and often novel realization of the solution

82
Q

Confirmation bias

A

The tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore contradictory evidence

83
Q

Functional fixedness

A

tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions

84
Q

Functional fixedness Examples

A

Matchbox, candle, and tacks example

85
Q

representativeness bias/hueristic and examples

A

Assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category

Tied in with stereotypes and judging people based on what we hear about others that may look like them

86
Q

availability bias/hueristic and examples

A

we judge likelihood of things in terms of how available in memory (vivid/recent)

After 9/11 many Americans were afraid of terrorist attacks

87
Q

impact bias/hueristic and examples

A

tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of emotions

Winning the lottery &
Experiencing severe disability

88
Q

Discrimination

A

the ability to perceive and respond to differences among stimuli

Psychology 101 (5 decks)

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