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Psychological Psychology > Final Exam 4 > Flashcards

Final Exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

What region of the brain is typically damaged by seizure disorder?

A

Hippocampus

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2
Q

Treatment for seizure disorder is typically _______ agonists.

A

GABA

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3
Q

What is the difference between a closed head injury and a focal brain injury?

A

A closed head injury is from impact and a focal brain injury is from something going through the head. Ex. Phineas Gage

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4
Q

Degeneration of dopamine secreting neurons of the substantia nigra

A

Parkinson’s Disease

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5
Q

Symptoms: muscular rigidity, slowness of movement, resting tremor, postural instability.

A

Parkinson’s Disease

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6
Q

Treatment: L-Dopa, Deep Brain Stimulation

A

Parkinson’s Disease

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7
Q

What is the autoimmune disease where the immune system destroys the myelin sheath around the axon?

A

Multiple Sclerosis

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8
Q

What two defining features distinguish malignant and benign tumors?

A

A malignant tumor is cancerous and has no distinct border and can metastasize. A benign tumor is not cancerous, cannot metastasize, and has a distinct border.

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9
Q

Metastasize:

A

shedding cells that can travel through the blood and cause tumor growth in other parts of the body.

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10
Q

shedding cells that can travel through the blood and cause tumor growth in other parts of the body.

A

Metastasize:

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11
Q

What two ways do tumors cause damage?

A

Infiltration – invade and destroy cells. Compression – destroys cells by pushing against them and blocking CSF flow.

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12
Q

Both malignant and benign tumors infiltrate and compress cells.

A

False

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13
Q

What kind of cells make up tumors?

A

Glial cells

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14
Q

Why aren’t neurons the cells that make up tumors?

A

Neurons aren’t capable of dividing.

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15
Q

a loss of cognitive abilities such as memory, perception, verbal ability, and judgement.

A

Dementia

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16
Q

At what age are there the most cases of Alzheimer’s?

A

85 years of age and above.

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17
Q

What are the key things to look for when diagnosing Alzheimer’s?

A

Amyloid Plaques, Neurofibrillary Tangles

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18
Q

In which neurological disorder is there damage to the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and cortex of the frontal and temporal lobes?

A

Alzheimer’s Disease

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19
Q

Which neurons are affected by Alzheimer’s Disease?

A

Acetylcholine

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20
Q

True or false: 97% of all AD cases are genetic.

A

False (less than 3% of all AD cases are genetic)

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21
Q

What is the link between down syndrome and AD?

A

After the age of 30 the brain develops AB Plaques.

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22
Q

What is the genetic factor linked to Down Syndrome?

A

An extra 21 chromosome.

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23
Q

What are the characteristics of both a highest risk AD patient and a second highest risk patient?

A

Highest risk carry two copies of the 4th allele (homozygotes), second highest carry one copy of the 4th allele (heterozygotes).

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24
Q

What are the implications of not having a second ApoE Gene?

A

Without a second ApoE Gene, patients will experience brain function impairments similar to AD patients.

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25
Q

What are the four main links to getting AD?

A

Traumatic Brain Injury, Diabetes, Stroke, Heart Disease

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26
Q

True or False: are men at a higher risk for getting AD?

A

False, women are.

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27
Q

True or False: most cases of AD are sporadic but AD is linked to several life events and genes.

A

True

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28
Q

What is the mitochondrial hypothesis?

A

Throughout your life you incur many (usually small) brain injuries and if your brain cannot repair itself effectively AD pathology and dementia are likely to happen.

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29
Q

What helps prevent AD?

A

Antioxidants
Good diet and exercise
Hormone Therapy

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30
Q

Why is imaging important in AD?

A

Earlier detection of the onset

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31
Q

How do we see AD?

A

fMRI, Pet, and MRI

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32
Q

What do doctors look for in the scans?

A

Structural atrophy, plaque bundles forming and areas where less energy is metabolized.

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33
Q

What is Schizophrenia?

A

A mental disorder characterized by disordered thoughts, delusions, hallucinations and other bizarre behaviors

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34
Q

What are positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms?

A

Positive symptoms - characterized by its presence
Negative symptoms- characterized by its absence
Cognitive symptoms-

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35
Q

What is a sensory perception not based in reality?

A

Hallucination

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36
Q

What is a delusion? Provide one example of one:

A

delusions are a fixed false belief, example: grandiose: when an individual believes he or she has an ungrounded exceptional ability.

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37
Q

What are the different classifications of disorganized thought and speech?

A

Loosening of associations, incoherence, mutism, neologism, echolalia, difficulty in abstract thinking

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38
Q

What are the four typical negative symptoms? What is anhedonia?

A

Flat affect, poverty of speech, lack of initiative, anhedonia. Anhedonia: inability to experience pleasure

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39
Q

What are these symptoms considered? Difficulty sustaining attention, difficulty with habituation, poor problem solving/ abstract thinking

A

cognitive symptoms

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40
Q

Over three to five years, what is the order symptoms typically occur?

A

first, negative symptoms, then cognitive symptoms followed by positive symptoms.

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41
Q

What is the life expectancy of someone with schizophrenia?

A

not much past 50 years old.

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42
Q

What are the consequences of schizophrenia?

A

social impact, smoking, substance abuse, premature mortality.

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43
Q

What is the age range for onset of schizophrenia

A

16-30 years old

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44
Q

True or false, Schizophrenia affects men more than women?

A

False, men and women are equally affected

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45
Q

In a given year what is the prevalence rate of schizophrenia in the US?

A

2.4 million (1.1% of the population)

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46
Q

True or False, people with schizophrenia are known to be violent?

A

False

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47
Q

What percentage federal healthcare funding goes towards mental health in the United States?

A

6.2%

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48
Q

What causes Schizophrenia?

A

We Still Don’t know

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49
Q

What can be said about schizophrenia’s inheritability?

A

50% of monozygotic twins inherit. There must be environmental factors as well

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50
Q

Why are those in feb-May more likely to develop Schizophrenia? Those living in a city?

A

higher susceptibility to influenza. Schizophrenia has a positive correlation with influenza.

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51
Q

What 3 regions of the brain are dysfunctional in schizophrenic patients?

A

prefrontal cortex, striatum, hippocampus

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52
Q

Schizophrenia is associated abnormal ____ distribution in the brain.

A

dopamine

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53
Q

In the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task Schizophrenic patients had difficulty with what?

A

switching organizational task rules

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54
Q

Schizophrenia manifests later in life as a result of the development of the ____?

A

PFC

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55
Q

Brain structure associated with schizophrenia manifests as larger ____?

A

ventricles

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56
Q

Abnormal distribution of _____ is seen in the brains of schizophrenics

A

dopamine

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57
Q

Tardive dyskinesia is a disorder characterized by ____, seen as a side effect from antipsychotics

A

Involuntary movements

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58
Q

Antipsychotics reduce the _____ symptoms of schizophrenia

A

negative

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59
Q

Animal research on schizophrenia is difficult because?

A

disease cannot be fully replicated in animals

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60
Q

Schizophrenia is tied to one specific gene loci? True or False?

A

false

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61
Q

What is epigenetics?

A

It is a regulation of gene expression outside of the DNA nucleotide sequence

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62
Q

What are the problems with current anti-depressant medications?

A

Long onset times, chronic administration, poor efficacy rates, and adverse side effects

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63
Q

True or False? When taking psychoactive drugs, they alter people’s perception, mood, or consciousness

A

True

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64
Q

What are the different drug classes and which one has the lowest risk of individual and societal harm?

A

The drug classes are depressants, stimulants, and psychedelics. Psychedelics drugs are the lowest risk of individual and societal harm

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65
Q

Name the three classes from the Federal Schedule 1

A

High addiction potential, no medical use, and lack of safety

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66
Q

Which drugs are not on the federally scheduled?

A

Alcohol & tobacco

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67
Q

What was “insightfulness” correlated with when looking at neuronal activity?

A

psilocybin

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68
Q

What is psilocybin involved with when looking at a psychopathology?

A

modulating brain activity

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69
Q

What are the brain regions involved with when looking at psilocybin and neuronal activity?

A

Hippocampal complex & Subgenual cingulate

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70
Q

What’s the correct order for epigenetics?

A

Experience → Epigenetics → psychopathology

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71
Q

In epigenetic rat studies what was high stressed mothers correlated with?

A

High anxiety behavior in pups

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72
Q

In what forums was LSD research done?

A

government research(interrogations), mental health professionals(different therapies), art, religion.

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73
Q

What are the differences between psychedelic therapy (used in the US) and psycholytic therapy used in Europe?

A

Psychodelic in US uses a large dose for a peak experience whereas psycholytic uses a smaller dose but repeatedly.

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74
Q

What year was LSD and Psilocybin discovered?

A

1943 LSD and 1958 for psilocybin

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75
Q

What receptor and neurotransmitter does psilocybin work on?

A

Serotonin

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76
Q

What is current psilocybin research helping with or thought to be helpful for?

A

Substance abuse disorders, OCD, depression, and anxiety

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77
Q

For how long do we see helpful effects of psilocybin after one administration of the drug in patients with depression?

A

For up to 6 months.

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78
Q

What function does the insula have in the brain?

A

Brain region for “sense of self.” It is involved in integrating subjective experiences, time and consciousness (interoception)

79
Q

What pathway is involved in emotionality and what are the three main parts?

A

The limbic pathway is composed of the cingulate gyrus, hippocampus and amygdala.

80
Q

Who discovered the psychoactive effects of LSD in 1943?

A

Albert Hofmann

81
Q

T/F Psychedelic plants were used for ritualistic, spiritual, and medical reasons.

A

T

82
Q

Where did using the mushroom “Fly agaric” for Shamanism originate in?

A

Siberia

83
Q

Who made the re-discovery of the “magic mushroom?”

A

R. Gordon Wasson

84
Q

By year 2030 what disorder is projected to be the number one disability worldwide?

A

MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER

85
Q

Schizophrenia is to _____________ as affective disorders are to _______________.

A

Disordered thought, disordered emotions.

86
Q

What are the symptoms of major depressive disorder?

A

Low mood, low self esteem, loss of interest and pleasure, feelings of unworthiness and guilt.

87
Q

What does the DSM-5 claim the criteria you must meet to be diagnosed with Major depressive disorder?

A

Must exhibit symptoms for at least 2 weeks, every day and one symptoms must be either 1) down mood or 2) loss of interest/pleasure

88
Q

Mania is the opposite of?

A

Depression

89
Q

What is bipolar disorder the variance of?

A

Depression and mania

90
Q

What are symptoms of bipolar disorder during mania?

A

Inflated self-esteem and overconfidence, decreased need for sleep (high energy), racing thoughts, distractibility, impulsivity, increased activity, excessive involvement in pleasurable activities

91
Q

What is seasonal affective disorder?

A

Depression during the winter months.

92
Q

Where is seasonal affective disorder most common, and why?

A

Northern states because of the changing seasons and less light during the winter months

93
Q

What is a treatment used to treat seasonal affective disorder?

A

Phototherapy treatment: daily exposure to light

94
Q

If you are an identical twin, what is the chance you will have a depressive disorder if your twin does too?

A

At least 50%, in some cases up to 69%

95
Q

How would our circadian rhythm genes play a role in depressive disorders?

A

Too much REM, not enough slow-wave sleep, interruptions in our sleep

96
Q

What type of anti-depression medication blocks the breakdown of serotonin and norepinephrine?

A

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors

97
Q

What type of anti-depressant drug blocks serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake?

A

Classic tricyclics

98
Q

What type of anti-depressant, like Prozac, uses selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI)?

A

Second generation

99
Q

What type of anti-depressants, such as bupropion, uses selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRI)?

A

Atypical antidepressants

100
Q

What hypothesis believes depression is caused by decreased activity at serotonergic and noradrenergic synapses?

A

Monamine hypothesis

101
Q

What is the problem with the monoamine hypothesis?

A

Not all patients respond to monoamine agonists and the effectiveness of the drugs takes 2-3 weeks.

102
Q

Drugs that _________ monoamine levels are associated with a __________ in depression.

A

increase, reduction

103
Q

Serotonin and norepinephrine metabolites are ________ in people with depression.

A

lower

104
Q

MAOI’S block the enzyme MAO, which does what to inactive metabolites?

A

Inhibits it from breaking down the transmitters

105
Q

Tricyclic and SSRI anti-depressant drugs do what?

A

Block reuptake

106
Q

What type of therapy can help drug-resistant depression by inducing a violent release of neurotransmitters?

A

Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)

107
Q

What areas of the brain are dysfunctional in depression?

A

Subgenual, Anterior Cingulate Cortex

108
Q

TRUE OR FALSE - When patients get better ACC activity in the brain decreases.

A

True

109
Q

What is the defining characteristic that qualifies an individual to be a candidate for Deep Brain Stimulation?

A

demonstrate drug- resistant depression (resistant to 3 medications)

110
Q

What percentage of patients that undergo Deep Brain Stimulation get better?

A

50%

111
Q

By increasing adult hippocampal neurogenesis, this natural remedy helps to reduce depression.

A

Exercise

112
Q

What are the three components to Mindful-Based Stress Reduction?

A

Mindfulness, Meditation, Yoga

113
Q

An individual has chronic back pain and suffers from moderate depression. As a psychologist, do you recommend Mindful-Based Stress Reduction as treatment?

A

Yes, it has been shown to improve depression, back pain symptoms, and change brain activity.

114
Q

What is the main treatment for Bipolar Disorder?

A

Lithium Carbonate - Metallic ion

115
Q

What is the potential danger in the use of this treatment for Bipolar Disorder?

A

Doubling the dose could be toxic (Narrow Therapeutic Index).

116
Q

What are the differences between anxiety disorders and panic disorders?

A
  • Anxiety disorders are psychological disorders that cause tension and over activity of the autonomic nervous system
  • Panic disorders are episodic periods of symptoms such as shortness of breath or other symptoms accompanied by intense fear
117
Q

Which sex is diagnosed with panic disorders more commonly?

A

female

118
Q

What is anticipatory anxiety?

A

The fear of having a panic attack

119
Q

What is agoraphobia?

A

The fear of being away from home or other safe places

120
Q

Sarah has anxiety when she is around school friends. She feels that people are talking about her and judge her whenever she joins a conversation. What disorder would Sarah most likely be diagnosed with?

A

Social Anxiety Disorder

121
Q

Do anxiety disorders have a hereditary component?

A

Yes

122
Q

What plays an important role in LTP and memory is associated with anxiety and depression?

A

BDNF

123
Q

What are the major brain regions involved in anxiety disorders?

A

Amygdala, cingulate, prefrontal, and insular cortices

124
Q

Where have neuroimaging studies shown increased activity in anxiety disorders?

A

amygdala and insular cortices

125
Q

What receptors do benzodiazepines act on?

A

GABA

126
Q

What is an obsession?

A

an unwanted thought or idea that a person is preoccupied with

127
Q

What is a compulsion?

A

the feeling that one is obligated to perform a behavior even if they do not want to

128
Q

What are the major brain regions involved in OCD?

A

basal ganglia, cingulate gyrus, and prefrontal cortex

129
Q

What has been found to treat severe OCD?

A

cingulotomy

130
Q

What is addiction?

A

impaired control over drug use, compulsive use, continued use despite harm, and craving

131
Q

How is it diagnosed?

A

Diagnosis previously required 1 symptom, now requires 2-3 mild, 4-5 moderate, 6-7 severe

132
Q

Dopamine Theory: How do dugs produce their desired effects

A

by increasing the activity of the reward pathway which consists of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) that connect to the nucleus accumbens, frontal cortex, and other areas of the limbic system

133
Q

Dopamine Theory: what type of reinforcement is used?

A

Positive reinforcement

134
Q

Self-Medication Theory: according to this theory, what are drugs used for?

A

for self-medication purposes, such as relief from negative emotional states (stress, anxiety, etc.)

135
Q

What is homeostatis?

A

the tendency of physiological system to maintain internal stability while adjusting to demands necessary for survival

136
Q

What is process of maintaining stability through adaptation

A

Allostasis

137
Q

What is initial drug use controlled by for the allostasis theory?

A

the drug’s rewarding effects

138
Q

What does chronic drug use produce and how is the behavior controlled, according to the allostais theory?

A

tolerance to the rewarding effects and behavior that is largely controlled by negative reinforcement

139
Q

Incentive Sensitation Theory: Drugs hijack this “wanting” system, and chronic use causes the dopamine system becomes ________and drug cues to become_______.

A

hyper-responsive and hyper-salient

140
Q

Incentive Sensitation Theory: How does addiction develop?

A

addiction develops from a sensitization of the mesolimbic dopamine system

141
Q

The mesolimbic dopamine system normally functions to attribute _________(attention-getting and desirable qualities, or “wanting”) to reward stimuli such as food and sex

A

incentive salience

142
Q

Aberrant Learning and Memory Theory:

What do abused drugs promote?

A

neuroplasticity and aberrant learning and memory

143
Q

What is the end result of aberrant learning and memory?

A

The end result is over-strengthening of the neural circuits that produce habits, memories of prior drug use, and associations between drugs/drug effects and environmental contexts and cues (similar to incentive sensitization theory)

144
Q

Hypofrontalism theory:

What type of deficits to abused drugs cause and what do they lead to?

A

Addictive drugs cause deficits in prefrontal cortex structure and function that lead to loss of impulse control, impaired planning and decision-making, exaggerated responsiveness to drug-associated cues, and compulsive drug use despite adverse consequences

145
Q

What are the two major dopamine systems of the brain?

A
  • mesocorticolimbic pathway/reward

- nigrostriatal pathway

146
Q

Where are serotonin cell bodies contained?

A

Raphe Nucleii

147
Q

What does serotonin regulate?

A

mood, pleasure, appetite, sleep, learning, memory, sexual function

148
Q

Where are norepinephrine cell bodies located?

A

locus coeruleus (LC) project widely to numerous areas of the

149
Q

What does norepinephrine regulate?

A

energy, arousal, alertness, attention, learning, memory, autonomic function

150
Q

Where are acetylcholine containing cell bodies located?

A

ACh containing cell bodies in the basal forebrain and brainstem project primarily to the cerebral cortex, amygdala (not shown), and hippocampus

151
Q

What does Ach regulate?

A

Regulates arousal, attention, learning, memory, autonomic function

152
Q

As the major _____ and ______ neurotransmitters in the brain (~50-70% of all synapses), neurons containing glutamate and GABA (respectively) are widely distributed throughout the brain

A

excitatory and inhibitory

153
Q

According to Nestler, drug addiction is “maladaptive __________ that occurs in ________ ___________in response to repeated exposure to a drug of abuse”

A

neuroplasticity, vulnerable individuals

154
Q

What is epigenetics?

A
  • Heritable regulation of gene expression outside of the DNA nucleotide sequence
    What alters gene expression rates?
    -histone modifications
155
Q

What does methylation of DNA do?

A

-blocks transcriptional machinery
What effects do drugs of abuse and stress cause on gene expression through regulation of epigenetics?
– Neuronal spine changes – Receptor localization, density, composition – Transporter localization – Synaptogenesis – Neurotransmitter concentrations – Immediate early genes

156
Q

Male rats exposed to _________self administer more methamphetamine

A

early life stress

157
Q

Early life stress changes _______ markers in key brain reward regions

A

epigenetic

158
Q

_______ of the HPA stress response is implicated in various psychiatric illness

A

disregulation

159
Q

Animal studies demonstrate that rats exposed to early life stress have altered epigenetic regulation of genes that regulate __________. This suggests that epigenetic regulation may partially explain how experiences early in life can alter __________psychiatric illness.

A

HPA stress response, vulnerability

160
Q

According to the DSM IV: what three criteria are needed to diagnose Autism Spectrum Disorders?

A

Language deficits, Social interaction deficits, and RRBI’s (restricted, repetitive, behaviors and interests)

161
Q

In the ________, Asperger’s Syndrome was no longer considered for diagnosis.

A

DSM 5

162
Q

What are two ways of nonverbal communication?

A

Body language and eye contact

163
Q

What are the executive functioning deficit of an ASD patient

A

Organizing, planning, sustaining attention, and inhibiting inappropriate responses

164
Q

If you have an identical twin you have an _____% chance of having autism

A

88

165
Q

The _____ vaccine was supposedly linked with ______________ issues in ASD by Wakefield in 1998.

A

MMR, gastrointestinal

166
Q

how many ASD patients are considered savant

A

10%

167
Q

what is the statistic on the sex difference on ASD prevalence

A

males 4 times more likely

168
Q

what are the factors that contribute to the difference

A

Symptom differences: fewer RRBIs and behavioral problems in females (females are likely underdiagnosed)
Hormonal and genetic factors

169
Q

what is the prevalence of ASD

A

1 in 68

170
Q

why are more children being diagnosed

A

awareness and broadening diagnostic criteria

Older parental age

171
Q

what is the trend of first born parental age

A

increasing

172
Q

Describe the long range and local range connectivity in an ASD patients brain

A

Connectivity, Long-range under-connectivity, Local over-connectivity

173
Q

What parts of the brain are affected by ASD?

A

basal ganglia, cerebral cortex, amygdala, corpus coliseum, hippocampus, brain stem, cerebellum

174
Q

what part of the cerebral cortex is most affected by autism.

A

frontal lobe

175
Q

_______ Is the ability to perceive how others think and feel, and how that relates to one’s self

A

Social Communication Theory

176
Q

What two components make up Empathy?

A

Emotional and Cognitive

177
Q

What are some characteristics of RRBIS?

A

Extreme, very noticeable or mild and discreet

178
Q

The cerebellum:

A

has smaller and fewer cells in ASD, traditionally thought to coordinate motor actions, and may coordinate social actions as well

179
Q

Why are individuals with ASD going to be more severely affected by aging?

A

Aging and ASD affect interior cortical regions most

180
Q

What is stress?

A

Stressor and stress response

181
Q

What is a stressor?

A

A real or perceived threat to homeostasis

182
Q

What is a stress response?

A

A psychological reaction

183
Q
  1. Engaging the __________ (calm) can calm down the __________ nervous system
A

parasympathetic, sympathetic

184
Q

What gland is responsible for the secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine?

A

Adrenal medulla

185
Q

What regulates the HPA axis response?

A

Glucocorticoids (GCs)

186
Q

What is the goal of the GCs?

A

Provides energy to the body energy

187
Q

Function of GCs?

A

a. Breakdown of proteins to provide energy
b. Hinder (non-essential) bodily functions
c. Facilitate the learning and memory

188
Q

What is released from the HPA?

A

Hypothalamus (H) CRH anterior pituitary (P) ACTH adrenal cortex (A) cortisol/ GCs

189
Q

Symptoms of chronic stress?

A 
Heart disease
High blood pressure
Immunosupression
Muscle Damage: Myopathy
Ulcers and steroid diabetes
Disrupts reproduction
190
Q

Chronic stress decrease dendrites complexity of hippocampal neurons?

A

True

191
Q

What are two factors that contribute to how a stressful situation is perceived?

A

Controllability

Predictability

192
Q

Are all stressors the same?

A

no

193
Q

When GCs is release does it cause stress?

A

No

Psychological Psychology (9 decks)

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