Final Exam 4 Flashcards
1
Q
What region of the brain is typically damaged by seizure disorder?
A
Hippocampus
2
Q
Treatment for seizure disorder is typically _______ agonists.
A
GABA
3
Q
What is the difference between a closed head injury and a focal brain injury?
A
A closed head injury is from impact and a focal brain injury is from something going through the head. Ex. Phineas Gage
4
Q
Degeneration of dopamine secreting neurons of the substantia nigra
A
Parkinson’s Disease
5
Q
Symptoms: muscular rigidity, slowness of movement, resting tremor, postural instability.
A
Parkinson’s Disease
6
Q
Treatment: L-Dopa, Deep Brain Stimulation
A
Parkinson’s Disease
7
Q
What is the autoimmune disease where the immune system destroys the myelin sheath around the axon?
A
Multiple Sclerosis
8
Q
What two defining features distinguish malignant and benign tumors?
A
A malignant tumor is cancerous and has no distinct border and can metastasize. A benign tumor is not cancerous, cannot metastasize, and has a distinct border.
9
Q
Metastasize:
A
shedding cells that can travel through the blood and cause tumor growth in other parts of the body.
10
Q
shedding cells that can travel through the blood and cause tumor growth in other parts of the body.
A
Metastasize:
11
Q
What two ways do tumors cause damage?
A
Infiltration – invade and destroy cells. Compression – destroys cells by pushing against them and blocking CSF flow.
12
Q
Both malignant and benign tumors infiltrate and compress cells.
A
False
13
Q
What kind of cells make up tumors?
A
Glial cells
14
Q
Why aren’t neurons the cells that make up tumors?
A
Neurons aren’t capable of dividing.
15
Q
a loss of cognitive abilities such as memory, perception, verbal ability, and judgement.
A
Dementia
16
Q
At what age are there the most cases of Alzheimer’s?
A
85 years of age and above.
17
Q
What are the key things to look for when diagnosing Alzheimer’s?
A
Amyloid Plaques, Neurofibrillary Tangles
18
Q
In which neurological disorder is there damage to the hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and cortex of the frontal and temporal lobes?
A
Alzheimer’s Disease
19
Q
Which neurons are affected by Alzheimer’s Disease?
A
Acetylcholine
20
Q
True or false: 97% of all AD cases are genetic.
A
False (less than 3% of all AD cases are genetic)
21
Q
What is the link between down syndrome and AD?
A
After the age of 30 the brain develops AB Plaques.
22
Q
What is the genetic factor linked to Down Syndrome?
A
An extra 21 chromosome.
23
Q
What are the characteristics of both a highest risk AD patient and a second highest risk patient?
A
Highest risk carry two copies of the 4th allele (homozygotes), second highest carry one copy of the 4th allele (heterozygotes).
24
Q
What are the implications of not having a second ApoE Gene?
A
Without a second ApoE Gene, patients will experience brain function impairments similar to AD patients.
25
What are the four main links to getting AD?
Traumatic Brain Injury, Diabetes, Stroke, Heart Disease
26
True or False: are men at a higher risk for getting AD?
False, women are.
27
True or False: most cases of AD are sporadic but AD is linked to several life events and genes.
True
28
What is the mitochondrial hypothesis?
Throughout your life you incur many (usually small) brain injuries and if your brain cannot repair itself effectively AD pathology and dementia are likely to happen.
29
What helps prevent AD?
Antioxidants
Good diet and exercise
Hormone Therapy
30
Why is imaging important in AD?
Earlier detection of the onset
31
How do we see AD?
fMRI, Pet, and MRI
32
What do doctors look for in the scans?
Structural atrophy, plaque bundles forming and areas where less energy is metabolized.
33
What is Schizophrenia?
A mental disorder characterized by disordered thoughts, delusions, hallucinations and other bizarre behaviors
34
What are positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms?
Positive symptoms - characterized by its presence
Negative symptoms- characterized by its absence
Cognitive symptoms-
35
What is a sensory perception not based in reality?
Hallucination
36
What is a delusion? Provide one example of one:
delusions are a fixed false belief, example: grandiose: when an individual believes he or she has an ungrounded exceptional ability.
37
What are the different classifications of disorganized thought and speech?
Loosening of associations, incoherence, mutism, neologism, echolalia, difficulty in abstract thinking
38
What are the four typical negative symptoms? What is anhedonia?
Flat affect, poverty of speech, lack of initiative, anhedonia. Anhedonia: inability to experience pleasure
39
What are these symptoms considered? Difficulty sustaining attention, difficulty with habituation, poor problem solving/ abstract thinking
cognitive symptoms
40
Over three to five years, what is the order symptoms typically occur?
first, negative symptoms, then cognitive symptoms followed by positive symptoms.
41
What is the life expectancy of someone with schizophrenia?
not much past 50 years old.
42
What are the consequences of schizophrenia?
social impact, smoking, substance abuse, premature mortality.
43
What is the age range for onset of schizophrenia
16-30 years old
44
True or false, Schizophrenia affects men more than women?
False, men and women are equally affected
45
In a given year what is the prevalence rate of schizophrenia in the US?
2.4 million (1.1% of the population)
46
True or False, people with schizophrenia are known to be violent?
False
47
What percentage federal healthcare funding goes towards mental health in the United States?
6.2%
48
What causes Schizophrenia?
We Still Don’t know
49
What can be said about schizophrenia’s inheritability?
50% of monozygotic twins inherit. There must be environmental factors as well
50
Why are those in feb-May more likely to develop Schizophrenia? Those living in a city?
higher susceptibility to influenza. Schizophrenia has a positive correlation with influenza.
51
What 3 regions of the brain are dysfunctional in schizophrenic patients?
prefrontal cortex, striatum, hippocampus
52
Schizophrenia is associated abnormal ____ distribution in the brain.
dopamine
53
In the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task Schizophrenic patients had difficulty with what?
switching organizational task rules
54
Schizophrenia manifests later in life as a result of the development of the ____?
PFC
55
Brain structure associated with schizophrenia manifests as larger ____?
ventricles
56
Abnormal distribution of _____ is seen in the brains of schizophrenics
dopamine
57
Tardive dyskinesia is a disorder characterized by ____, seen as a side effect from antipsychotics
Involuntary movements
58
Antipsychotics reduce the _____ symptoms of schizophrenia
negative
59
Animal research on schizophrenia is difficult because?
disease cannot be fully replicated in animals
60
Schizophrenia is tied to one specific gene loci? True or False?
false
61
What is epigenetics?
It is a regulation of gene expression outside of the DNA nucleotide sequence
62
What are the problems with current anti-depressant medications?
Long onset times, chronic administration, poor efficacy rates, and adverse side effects
63
True or False? When taking psychoactive drugs, they alter people’s perception, mood, or consciousness
True
64
What are the different drug classes and which one has the lowest risk of individual and societal harm?
The drug classes are depressants, stimulants, and psychedelics. Psychedelics drugs are the lowest risk of individual and societal harm
65
Name the three classes from the Federal Schedule 1
High addiction potential, no medical use, and lack of safety
66
Which drugs are not on the federally scheduled?
Alcohol & tobacco
67
What was “insightfulness” correlated with when looking at neuronal activity?
psilocybin
68
What is psilocybin involved with when looking at a psychopathology?
modulating brain activity
69
What are the brain regions involved with when looking at psilocybin and neuronal activity?
Hippocampal complex & Subgenual cingulate
70
What's the correct order for epigenetics?
Experience → Epigenetics → psychopathology
71
In epigenetic rat studies what was high stressed mothers correlated with?
High anxiety behavior in pups
72
In what forums was LSD research done?
government research(interrogations), mental health professionals(different therapies), art, religion.
73
What are the differences between psychedelic therapy (used in the US) and psycholytic therapy used in Europe?
Psychodelic in US uses a large dose for a peak experience whereas psycholytic uses a smaller dose but repeatedly.
74
What year was LSD and Psilocybin discovered?
1943 LSD and 1958 for psilocybin
75
What receptor and neurotransmitter does psilocybin work on?
Serotonin
76
What is current psilocybin research helping with or thought to be helpful for?
Substance abuse disorders, OCD, depression, and anxiety
77
For how long do we see helpful effects of psilocybin after one administration of the drug in patients with depression?
For up to 6 months.
78
What function does the insula have in the brain?
Brain region for “sense of self.” It is involved in integrating subjective experiences, time and consciousness (interoception)
79
What pathway is involved in emotionality and what are the three main parts?
The limbic pathway is composed of the cingulate gyrus, hippocampus and amygdala.
80
Who discovered the psychoactive effects of LSD in 1943?
Albert Hofmann
81
T/F Psychedelic plants were used for ritualistic, spiritual, and medical reasons.
T
82
Where did using the mushroom “Fly agaric” for Shamanism originate in?
Siberia
83
Who made the re-discovery of the “magic mushroom?”
R. Gordon Wasson
84
By year 2030 what disorder is projected to be the number one disability worldwide?
MAJOR DEPRESSIVE DISORDER
85
Schizophrenia is to _____________ as affective disorders are to _______________.
Disordered thought, disordered emotions.
86
What are the symptoms of major depressive disorder?
Low mood, low self esteem, loss of interest and pleasure, feelings of unworthiness and guilt.
87
What does the DSM-5 claim the criteria you must meet to be diagnosed with Major depressive disorder?
Must exhibit symptoms for at least 2 weeks, every day and one symptoms must be either 1) down mood or 2) loss of interest/pleasure
88
Mania is the opposite of?
Depression
89
What is bipolar disorder the variance of?
Depression and mania
90
What are symptoms of bipolar disorder during mania?
Inflated self-esteem and overconfidence, decreased need for sleep (high energy), racing thoughts, distractibility, impulsivity, increased activity, excessive involvement in pleasurable activities
91
What is seasonal affective disorder?
Depression during the winter months.
92
Where is seasonal affective disorder most common, and why?
Northern states because of the changing seasons and less light during the winter months
93
What is a treatment used to treat seasonal affective disorder?
Phototherapy treatment: daily exposure to light
94
If you are an identical twin, what is the chance you will have a depressive disorder if your twin does too?
At least 50%, in some cases up to 69%
95
How would our circadian rhythm genes play a role in depressive disorders?
Too much REM, not enough slow-wave sleep, interruptions in our sleep
96
What type of anti-depression medication blocks the breakdown of serotonin and norepinephrine?
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors
97
What type of anti-depressant drug blocks serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake?
Classic tricyclics
98
What type of anti-depressant, like Prozac, uses selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI)?
Second generation
99
What type of anti-depressants, such as bupropion, uses selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRI)?
Atypical antidepressants
100
What hypothesis believes depression is caused by decreased activity at serotonergic and noradrenergic synapses?
Monamine hypothesis
101
What is the problem with the monoamine hypothesis?
Not all patients respond to monoamine agonists and the effectiveness of the drugs takes 2-3 weeks.
102
Drugs that _________ monoamine levels are associated with a __________ in depression.
increase, reduction
103
Serotonin and norepinephrine metabolites are ________ in people with depression.
lower
104
MAOI’S block the enzyme MAO, which does what to inactive metabolites?
Inhibits it from breaking down the transmitters
105
Tricyclic and SSRI anti-depressant drugs do what?
Block reuptake
106
What type of therapy can help drug-resistant depression by inducing a violent release of neurotransmitters?
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
107
What areas of the brain are dysfunctional in depression?
Subgenual, Anterior Cingulate Cortex
108
TRUE OR FALSE - When patients get better ACC activity in the brain decreases.
True
109
What is the defining characteristic that qualifies an individual to be a candidate for Deep Brain Stimulation?
demonstrate drug- resistant depression (resistant to 3 medications)
110
What percentage of patients that undergo Deep Brain Stimulation get better?
50%
111
By increasing adult hippocampal neurogenesis, this natural remedy helps to reduce depression.
Exercise
112
What are the three components to Mindful-Based Stress Reduction?
Mindfulness, Meditation, Yoga
113
An individual has chronic back pain and suffers from moderate depression. As a psychologist, do you recommend Mindful-Based Stress Reduction as treatment?
Yes, it has been shown to improve depression, back pain symptoms, and change brain activity.
114
What is the main treatment for Bipolar Disorder?
Lithium Carbonate - Metallic ion
115
What is the potential danger in the use of this treatment for Bipolar Disorder?
Doubling the dose could be toxic (Narrow Therapeutic Index).
116
What are the differences between anxiety disorders and panic disorders?
- Anxiety disorders are psychological disorders that cause tension and over activity of the autonomic nervous system
- Panic disorders are episodic periods of symptoms such as shortness of breath or other symptoms accompanied by intense fear
117
Which sex is diagnosed with panic disorders more commonly?
female
118
What is anticipatory anxiety?
The fear of having a panic attack
119
What is agoraphobia?
The fear of being away from home or other safe places
120
Sarah has anxiety when she is around school friends. She feels that people are talking about her and judge her whenever she joins a conversation. What disorder would Sarah most likely be diagnosed with?
Social Anxiety Disorder
121
Do anxiety disorders have a hereditary component?
Yes
122
What plays an important role in LTP and memory is associated with anxiety and depression?
BDNF
123
What are the major brain regions involved in anxiety disorders?
Amygdala, cingulate, prefrontal, and insular cortices
124
Where have neuroimaging studies shown increased activity in anxiety disorders?
amygdala and insular cortices
125
What receptors do benzodiazepines act on?
GABA
126
What is an obsession?
an unwanted thought or idea that a person is preoccupied with
127
What is a compulsion?
the feeling that one is obligated to perform a behavior even if they do not want to
128
What are the major brain regions involved in OCD?
basal ganglia, cingulate gyrus, and prefrontal cortex
129
What has been found to treat severe OCD?
cingulotomy
130
What is addiction?
impaired control over drug use, compulsive use, continued use despite harm, and craving
131
How is it diagnosed?
Diagnosis previously required 1 symptom, now requires 2-3 mild, 4-5 moderate, 6-7 severe
132
Dopamine Theory: How do dugs produce their desired effects
by increasing the activity of the reward pathway which consists of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) that connect to the nucleus accumbens, frontal cortex, and other areas of the limbic system
133
Dopamine Theory: what type of reinforcement is used?
Positive reinforcement
134
Self-Medication Theory: according to this theory, what are drugs used for?
for self-medication purposes, such as relief from negative emotional states (stress, anxiety, etc.)
135
What is homeostatis?
the tendency of physiological system to maintain internal stability while adjusting to demands necessary for survival
136
What is process of maintaining stability through adaptation
Allostasis
137
What is initial drug use controlled by for the allostasis theory?
the drug's rewarding effects
138
What does chronic drug use produce and how is the behavior controlled, according to the allostais theory?
tolerance to the rewarding effects and behavior that is largely controlled by negative reinforcement
139
Incentive Sensitation Theory: Drugs hijack this “wanting” system, and chronic use causes the dopamine system becomes ________and drug cues to become_______.
hyper-responsive and hyper-salient
140
Incentive Sensitation Theory: How does addiction develop?
addiction develops from a sensitization of the mesolimbic dopamine system
141
The mesolimbic dopamine system normally functions to attribute _________(attention-getting and desirable qualities, or “wanting”) to reward stimuli such as food and sex
incentive salience
142
Aberrant Learning and Memory Theory:
| What do abused drugs promote?
neuroplasticity and aberrant learning and memory
143
What is the end result of aberrant learning and memory?
The end result is over-strengthening of the neural circuits that produce habits, memories of prior drug use, and associations between drugs/drug effects and environmental contexts and cues (similar to incentive sensitization theory)
144
Hypofrontalism theory:
| What type of deficits to abused drugs cause and what do they lead to?
Addictive drugs cause deficits in prefrontal cortex structure and function that lead to loss of impulse control, impaired planning and decision-making, exaggerated responsiveness to drug-associated cues, and compulsive drug use despite adverse consequences
145
What are the two major dopamine systems of the brain?
- mesocorticolimbic pathway/reward
| - nigrostriatal pathway
146
Where are serotonin cell bodies contained?
Raphe Nucleii
147
What does serotonin regulate?
mood, pleasure, appetite, sleep, learning, memory, sexual function
148
Where are norepinephrine cell bodies located?
locus coeruleus (LC) project widely to numerous areas of the
149
What does norepinephrine regulate?
energy, arousal, alertness, attention, learning, memory, autonomic function
150
Where are acetylcholine containing cell bodies located?
ACh containing cell bodies in the basal forebrain and brainstem project primarily to the cerebral cortex, amygdala (not shown), and hippocampus
151
What does Ach regulate?
Regulates arousal, attention, learning, memory, autonomic function
152
As the major _____ and ______ neurotransmitters in the brain (~50-70% of all synapses), neurons containing glutamate and GABA (respectively) are widely distributed throughout the brain
excitatory and inhibitory
153
According to Nestler, drug addiction is “maladaptive __________ that occurs in ________ ___________in response to repeated exposure to a drug of abuse”
neuroplasticity, vulnerable individuals
154
What is epigenetics?
- Heritable regulation of gene expression outside of the DNA nucleotide sequence
What alters gene expression rates?
-histone modifications
155
What does methylation of DNA do?
-blocks transcriptional machinery
What effects do drugs of abuse and stress cause on gene expression through regulation of epigenetics?
– Neuronal spine changes – Receptor localization, density, composition – Transporter localization – Synaptogenesis – Neurotransmitter concentrations – Immediate early genes
156
Male rats exposed to _________self administer more methamphetamine
early life stress
157
Early life stress changes _______ markers in key brain reward regions
epigenetic
158
_______ of the HPA stress response is implicated in various psychiatric illness
disregulation
159
Animal studies demonstrate that rats exposed to early life stress have altered epigenetic regulation of genes that regulate __________. This suggests that epigenetic regulation may partially explain how experiences early in life can alter __________psychiatric illness.
HPA stress response, vulnerability
160
According to the DSM IV: what three criteria are needed to diagnose Autism Spectrum Disorders?
Language deficits, Social interaction deficits, and RRBI’s (restricted, repetitive, behaviors and interests)
161
In the ________, Asperger’s Syndrome was no longer considered for diagnosis.
DSM 5
162
What are two ways of nonverbal communication?
Body language and eye contact
163
What are the executive functioning deficit of an ASD patient
Organizing, planning, sustaining attention, and inhibiting inappropriate responses
164
If you have an identical twin you have an _____% chance of having autism
88
165
The _____ vaccine was supposedly linked with ______________ issues in ASD by Wakefield in 1998.
MMR, gastrointestinal
166
how many ASD patients are considered savant
10%
167
what is the statistic on the sex difference on ASD prevalence
males 4 times more likely
168
what are the factors that contribute to the difference
Symptom differences: fewer RRBIs and behavioral problems in females (females are likely underdiagnosed)
Hormonal and genetic factors
169
what is the prevalence of ASD
1 in 68
170
why are more children being diagnosed
awareness and broadening diagnostic criteria
| Older parental age
171
what is the trend of first born parental age
increasing
172
Describe the long range and local range connectivity in an ASD patients brain
Connectivity, Long-range under-connectivity, Local over-connectivity
173
What parts of the brain are affected by ASD?
basal ganglia, cerebral cortex, amygdala, corpus coliseum, hippocampus, brain stem, cerebellum
174
what part of the cerebral cortex is most affected by autism.
frontal lobe
175
_______ Is the ability to perceive how others think and feel, and how that relates to one’s self
Social Communication Theory
176
What two components make up Empathy?
Emotional and Cognitive
177
What are some characteristics of RRBIS?
Extreme, very noticeable or mild and discreet
178
The cerebellum:
has smaller and fewer cells in ASD, traditionally thought to coordinate motor actions, and may coordinate social actions as well
179
Why are individuals with ASD going to be more severely affected by aging?
Aging and ASD affect interior cortical regions most
180
What is stress?
Stressor and stress response
181
What is a stressor?
A real or perceived threat to homeostasis
182
What is a stress response?
A psychological reaction
183
1. Engaging the __________ (calm) can calm down the __________ nervous system
parasympathetic, sympathetic
184
What gland is responsible for the secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine?
Adrenal medulla
185
What regulates the HPA axis response?
Glucocorticoids (GCs)
186
What is the goal of the GCs?
Provides energy to the body energy
187
Function of GCs?
a. Breakdown of proteins to provide energy
b. Hinder (non-essential) bodily functions
c. Facilitate the learning and memory
188
What is released from the HPA?
Hypothalamus (H) CRH anterior pituitary (P) ACTH adrenal cortex (A) cortisol/ GCs
189
Symptoms of chronic stress?
```
Heart disease
High blood pressure
Immunosupression
Muscle Damage: Myopathy
Ulcers and steroid diabetes
Disrupts reproduction
```
190
Chronic stress decrease dendrites complexity of hippocampal neurons?
True
191
What are two factors that contribute to how a stressful situation is perceived?
Controllability
| Predictability
192
Are all stressors the same?
no
193
When GCs is release does it cause stress?
No
