FINAL EXAM Flashcards
What is cognition?
Mental activities and processes associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating information
What is Paget’s definition of cognition?
Assimilation and accommodation
What is a concept?
The mental grouping of similar objects
What is conceptual art?
When the idea referred is more important than the art itself
How are concepts formed?
Through prototypes
What is a prototype?
A mental image of the best example of a concept
Where do prototypical categories originate from?
Evolution (safe vs. dangerous)
What is F.A.B.?
Fundamental attribution bias
When do prototypes fail?
When examples stretch beyond definition, the boundary between concepts is fuzzy, or examples contradict prototypes
What is problem solving?
The thinking we do in order to answer a complex question/to figure out how to resolve an unfavorable situation
What are the different kinds of problem solving?
Trial & error, algorithms, heuristics, and insight
What is trial & error?
Trying various solutions and and, if that fails, trying others
What is the downside of trial & error?
It takes a long time
What is a heuristic?
A short-cut, step-saving thinking strategy or principle that generates a solution quickly
What is the downside of heuristics?
They may be inaccurate
What is an algorithm?
A step-by-step strategy for solving a problem, methodically leading to a specific solution
What is insight?
A sudden realization, leap forward in thinking that leads to a solution
What did Kanneman and Tversky study?
Human problem solving
What award was given to Kanneman and Tversky?
A nobel prize in economics
What are the three steps of insight?
- Extra frontal lobe activity
- Experiencing “aha” moment and stating answer
- Burst of activity in right temporal lobe (area for receiving language)
What is a mental set?
The tendency to approach problems using a mindset that has worked previously, relying on assimilation rather than accommodation
What is a fixation?
The tendency to get stuck in one way of thinking/inability to see problem from a new perspective, a.k.a. unsuccessful assimilation
What is an availability heuristic?
To estimate the likelihood of of an event based on how much it stands out in our mind (type of mental set)
What is weighted attention?
An availability heuristic that influences the focus of attention (ex. danger of planes vs. motorcycles)
What are phonemes?
The smallest units of sound (vowels and consonants)
What are morphemes?
The units of meaning (suffixes, prefixes, words)
What is grammar?
The rules for using words, including semantics, definitions, connotations, and syntax
What does language consist of?
Phonemes, morphemes, and grammar
How many words are learned from 2-18 years old?
10 words per day
What level of language development do children reach in preschool?
They can recall words and meanings and assemble words into sentences while following social rules for speaking and listening
How many words can a 6-year-old recognize?
15,000
How many words can an 11-year-old recognize?
30,000
How many words can an adult recognize?
75,000
What stage of language development is reached at 0-4 months?
Receptive language
What is receptive language?
Associating sounds with facial movements and recognizing when sounds are broken into words
What stage of language development is reached at 4 months?
Productive language
What is productive language?
Babbling in multilingual sounds and gestures
What stage of language development is reached at 10 months?
The babbling sounds like the household’s language
What stage of language development is reached at 12 months?
The one-word stage
What is the one-word stage?
Understanding and beginning to say many nouns
What stage of language development is reached at 18-24 months?
The two-word “telegraphic” tweet/speech
What is two-word “telegraphic” tweet/speech?
Adding verbs and making sentences but missing words
What stage of language development is reached at 24+ months?
Speaking full sentences and understanding complex sentences
What was Chomsky’s perspective of language acquisition?
That language is linked to the unique structure of the human brain
What was Skinner’s perspective of language acquisition?
Language proceeds as a consequence of right reinforcement schedule
What is L.A.D.?
Language acquisition device
What book did Chomsky write?
Syntactic Structures (1957)
What book did Skinner write?
Verbal Behavior (1957)
How many citations does Chomsky have?
28,000
How many citations does Skinner have?
14,000
What is aphasia?
Impairment in ability to produce/understand language, usually caused by brain damage
What happens if the Boca’s area is damaged?
Difficulty in putting words together in sentences/speaking single words, although capable of singing a song
What happens if the Wernicke’s area is damaged?
Difficulty comprehending speech and producing coherent speech (not easily monitoring one’s own speech)
What five parts of the brain are used when reading a word?
- Visual cortex
- Angular gyrus
- Wernicke’s area
- Broca’s area
- Motor cortex
What role does the visual cortex play in reading a word?
Receives written words as visual stimulation
What role does the angular gyrus play in reading a word?
Transforms visual representations into an auditory code
What role does the Wernicke’s area play in reading a word?
Interprets auditory code
What role does the Broca’s area play in reading a word?
Controls speech muscles via motor cortex
What role does the motor cortex play in reading a word?
The word is pronounced
How do animals use productive language?
Have “words”: sounds, gestures, dances to communicate information
How many signs did Washoe the chimpanzee learn?
275 signs
What is linguistic determinism?
The idea that our specific language determines how we think
What is intelligence?
The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations (accommodation)
What are intelligence tests?
Series of questions and other exercises that attempt to assess peoples’ mental abilities in a way that generates a mental score to compare with others
Who discovered general intelligence (g)?
Charles Spearman (1863-1945)
How did Spearman discover general intelligence?
A factor analysis of different skills showed that those who did well in one area also did well in another
How does one have high “g”?
When those who do well in one area also do well in another
What is a factor analysis?
A statistical technique that determines how different variables relate
Who discovered the two categories of general intelligence?
Raymond Cattell
What is crystallized intelligence?
Skills (ex. biking, skiing)
What happens to crystallized intelligence over time?
It stays stable
What is fluid intelligence?
Creativity
What happens to fluid intelligence over time?
It fades with age
How does fluid intelligence relate to crystallized intelligence?
It correlates/overlaps
Who believed there are seven clusters of abilities?
Louis Thurstone (1887-1955)
What are Thurstone’s seven clusters of abilities?
- Verbal comprehension
- Inductive reasoning
- Word fluency
- Spatial ability
- Memory
- Perceptual speed
- Numerical ability
What is savant syndrome?
Having isolated “islands” of high ability amidst a sea of below-average cognitive and social functioning
Who believed there are eight types of intelligence?
Howard Gardener (1943)
What are Gardener’s eight types of intelligence?
- Naturalist
- Linguistic
- Logical-mathematical
- Musical
- Spatial
- Bodily-kinesthetic
- Intrapersonal
- Interpersonal
Who believed there are three types of intelligence?
Robert Sternberg (1949)
What were the three parts of Sternberg’s triarchic theory?
- Practical intelligence: expertise and talent that help to complete the tasks and complex challenges of everyday life
- Analytical intelligence: solving a well-defined problem with a single answer
- Creative intelligence: generating new ideas to help adapt to novel situations
What were the strengths of Spearman’s general intelligence?
Different abilities (ex. verbal and spatial) have some tendency to correlate
What were the weaknesses of Spearman’s general intelligence?
Human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single factor
What were the strengths of Thurstone’s primary mental abilities?
A single “g” score is not as informative as scores for seven primary mental abilities
What were the weaknesses of Thurstone’s primary mental abilities?
Results show a tendency to cluster, suggesting an underlying “g” factor
What are the strengths of Gardener’s multiple intelligences?
Intelligence is more than verbal and mathematical skills and other abilities are equally important to human adaptability
What are the weaknesses of Gardener’s multiple intelligences?
Are all abilities talents? Should some be considered less vital talents?
What are the strengths of Sternberg’s triarchic theory?
The three factors can be reliably measured
What are the weaknesses of Sternberg’s triarchic theory?
The three factors may be less independent and actually share an underlying “g” factor, while additional testing is needed to determined whether facets can reliably predict success
What is creativity?
The ability to produce ideas that are novel and valuable
What is creative intelligence?
Using these ideas to adapt to novel situations
What is convergent thinking?
Left-brain activity involving zeroing in on a single correct answer
What is divergent thinking?
The ability to generate new ideas, actions, and multiple options and answers
What kind of thinking does creativity involve?
Divergent thinking
What is social intelligence?
The ability to understand and navigate social situations
What is emotional intelligence?
Processing and managing emotional component of social situations, including one’s own emotions
What are the components of emotional intelligence?
- Perceiving emotions
- Understanding emotions
- Managing emotions
- Using emotions
What does it mean to perceive emotions?
To recognize emotions in facial expressions, stories, and even in music
What does it mean to understand emotions?
To see blended emotions and predict emotional states and changes in self and others
What does it mean to manage emotions?
To modulate and express emotions in various situations
What does it mean to use emotions?
To use emotions as fuel and motivation for adaptive thinking
What are the benefits of high emotional intelligence?
The ability to delay gratification and success in career and other social situations
What do verbal and intelligence test scores correlate with?
- Speed of info retrieval from memory
- Working memory capacity
- Speed of receiving/processing sensory and perceptual information
What test measures processing speed?
Conners test
What is an assessment?
An activity/instrument used to measure intelligence
What is the challenge behind assessments?
Whether the measurements are valid and reliable
Why was intelligence measured?
- To study how and why people differ in ability
- To match strengths/weaknesses to jobs and school programs
- “Survival of the fittest” process (eugenicist Francis Galton)
What was Alfred Binet’s test made for?
To find which children needed help within their education level
What did Binet’s test measure?
Mental age
What did Binet’s test imply about children with “lower abilites”?
They were delayed, not disabled
Who adapted Binet’s test?
Lewis Terman from Stanford University
What did Terman change in Binet’s test?
Added new test terms and extended age range to adulthood
What did William Stern’s scoring result in?
The concept of IQ (intelligence quotient)
How did Binet report scores?
As one’s mental age
How did Stern preserve the comparison of mental to chronological age?
Ratio/quotient
What is the equation for IQ?
IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100
How did Terman’s perspective of scores change?
Initially believed intelligence was innate (genetic) and unchanging, but later saw how they could be affected by education and familiarity with test’s language/culture
How did Binet believe one could improve a low score?
By studying and developing self-discipline and attention span
How did Terman believe one could improve a low score?
By removing genes from the population (eugenics)
What are achievement tests?
A measurement of what you’ve already learned
What are aptitude tests?
A prediction of ability to learn new skills
What is WAIS?
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
What is WISC?
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
What do WAIS and WISC measure?
“g”/IQ
Who created WAIS and WISC?
David Wechsler
What do Wechsler’s tests have subscores for?
- Verbal comprehension
- Processing speed
- Perceptual organization
- Working memory
What are the requirements for psychological tests to be considered useful?
- Standardized
- Reliable
- Valid
Where do 95% of scores fall on Weschler’s intelligence test?
30 points of 100
Where do 68% of scores fall on Weschler’s intelligence test?
15 points of 100
What is re-standardization?
Re-testing a sample of the general population to make an updated, accurate comparison group in case people are smarter than when test was first made
What is the Flynn Effect?
Performance on intelligence tests has improved over years worldwide
How is an assessment considered reliable?
When it generates consistent results
What is split-half reliability?
When two halves of a test yield the same results
What is test-retest reliability?
When a test gives the same results when used again
How is an assessment considered valid?
When it accurately measures what it is supposed to measure
What is content-validity?
Test correlates well with relevant criterion, trait, or behavior
What is predictive validity?
Test predicts future performance
What did adoption studies find regarding intelligence?
Adoptees’ intelligence scores look more like those of their biological parents
What are girls found to be better at?
- Spelling
- Locating objects
- Detecting emotions
What are boys found to be better at?
- Spatial reasoning
- Complex math problems
What is within-group?
When different conditions are compared within the same group
What is between-group?
When different conditions are compared between different groups
What is stereotype-threat?
The feeling that one will be evaluated based on negative stereotypes
How can stereotype-threat affect performance?
One may use working memory for worrying instead of thinking
What is empirical evidence?
A more careful style of forming and evaluating knowledge
What is anecdotal evidence?
Intuition and personal accounts
What is critical thinking used for?
Developing more effective and accurate ways to figure out what makes people do, think, and feel the things they do
How do the amygdala and heuristics relate to critical thinking?
The brain is designed for surviving and reproducing, but not the best tool for seeing “reality” clearly
How do the hippocampus, cortex, and algorithms relate to critical thinking?
To improve thinking, one must learn to catch themselves in critical thinking errors
What kind of evidence does critical thinking rely on?
Empirical evidence
What is hindsight bias?
“I knew this would happen”
Where does hindsight bias come from?
The mind builds current wisdom around what we have already been told; biased in favor of old info (assimilation)
What are the two errors of overconfidence?
- Performance
- Accuracy
What are the three parts of the scientific attitude?
- Curiosity
- Skepticism
- Humility
What is curiosity?
Always asking new questions
What is skepticism?
Not accepting a “fact” as true without challenging it and seeing if “facts” can withstand attempts to be disproven
What is humility?
Seeking the truth rather than trying to be right
What is the scientific method?
Isolating one or more independent variables to consider their impact on outcome (dependent) variables
What is the process of testing ideas?
- Setting up situations that test ideas
- Making careful, organized observation
- Analyzing whether data fits with ideas
What are the basics of the scientific process?
- Theory
- Hypothesis
- Operational Definitions
- Replication
What are the different research goals/types of the scientific process?
- Description
- Correlation
- Prediction
- Causation
- Experiments
What is a theory in the scientific process?
A set of principles, built on observations and other verifiable facts, that explains some phenomenon and predicts future behavior
What are hypotheses in the scientific process?
Testable predictions that are consistent with our theory
What are operational definitions in the scientific process?
Other variables you would want to control for
What is replication in the scientific process?
Trying research again using the same operational definitions of concepts and procedures
What is descriptive research?
Systematic, objective observation of people
What is the goal of descriptive research?
To provide a clear, accurate picture of peoples’ behaviors, thoughts, and attributes
What is a case study?
Observing and gathering information to complete in-depth study of one individual
What is naturalistic observation?
Gathering data about behavior; watching but not intervening
What are surveys and interviews?
Having other people report on their own attitudes and behaviors
What is the benefit of case studies?
Can be a source of ideas about human nature in general
What is the danger of case studies?
Overgeneralization from just one example
What is the benefit of naturalistic observation?
Can be used to study more than one individual and to find truths that apply to broader population
What is random sampling?
A technique for making sure that every individual in a population has a similar chance of being in a sample
What are key points to consider about surveys?
- Be careful about question wording
- Only question randomly sampled people
What is the general definition of correlation?
Observation that two traits/attributes are related to each other
What is the scientific definition of correlation?
Measure of how closely two factors vary together
What tool is used to observe correlation?
Scatterplots
What is a correlation coefficient?
A number representing the strength and direction of correlation
What is experimentation?
Manipulating one factor in a situation to determine its effect
What is the difference between random sampling and random assignment?
Pool of research participants that represents population vs. randomization to control/experimental groups to control all variables except the one that is being manipulated
What is the placebo effect?
Experimental effects that are caused by expectations about intervention
What is double-blind?
When neither participants nor research staff know which participants are in experimental or control groups
What is a control group?
A group that is the same in every way except the one variable that is being changed
What is an independent variable?
A variable manipulated independently of what other variables are doing
What is a dependent variable?
A variable expected to experience a change from the manipulation
What is a confounding variable?
Other variables that may have an effect on the dependent variable
What is an experiment?
A type of research in which the researcher manipulates a limited number of factors (IV’s) and measures the impact on other factors (DV’s)
What are statistics?
Tools for organizing, presenting, analyzing, and interpreting data
What is nonbiased sampling?
Making sure the sample studied is a good representation of the chosen population
Who wrote “The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals” (1897)?
Charles Darwin
What did Carrol Izzard suggest?
There are 10 basic emotions, those evident at birth and those found later
What are primary emotions?
Basic emotions that are present from birth
What are secondary emotions?
Mixed/blended emotions and emotion-regulation strategies that appear later in life
What finding suggests that the origin of facial expressions is genetic?
Blind people and non-blind people show the same facial expressions
What is an emotion?
A full body/mind/behavior response to a situation
What are the three components of an emotion?
- Behavior (expressive behavior)
- Arousal (bodily response)
- Cognition (conscious experience)
What is the James-Lange Theory?
Emotion is the conscious awareness of physiological responses to stimuli (bodily experience precedes thoughts)
Who created the James-Lange Theory?
William James (1842-1910) and Carl Lange (1834-1900)
What is the Cannon-Bard Theory?
We have a conscious/cognitive experience of an emotion at the same time as our body responding
Who created the Cannon-Bard Theory?
Walter Cannon (1871-1945) and Philip Bard (1898-1977)
What is the Schachter-Singer “Two-factor” Theory?
Emotions do not exist until we add a label to whatever body sensations being felt
Who created the Schachter-Singer “Two-factor” Theory?
Stanley Schachter (1922-1987) and Jerome Singer (1934-2010)
What is the Zajonc LeDoux Lazarus Theory?
Some emotional reactions, especially fears, likes, and dislikes, develop in a “low road” through the brain, skipping conscious thought
Who created the Zajonc LeDoux Lazarus Theory?
Robert Zajonc (1923-2008), Joseph LeDoux (1949-), and Richard Lazarus (1922-2002)
What causes the physiological arousal felt during emotions?
Sympathetic nervous system
What is the difference between sympathetic division and parasympathetic division?
Arousing vs. calming
What part of the brain does fear trigger more in comparison to anger?
Amygdala
What part of the brain correlates with positive “approach” emotions?
Left frontal lobe
What part of the brain correlates with negative “withdrawal” emotions?
Right hemisphere
How do introverts and extroverts differ when it comes to detecting emotions?
Introverts are better at detecting emotions while extroverts have emotions that are easier to read
What do polygraphs detect?
Physiological arousal
Where does the brain show signs of lying?
Left prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex
What is the facial feedback effect?
Facial position and muscle changes can alter which emotion we feel
What happens if a smile is faked?
The person’s mood may actually improve
What did James Russell believe about the emotional experience?
There are two dimensions:
1. From pleasant to unpleasant
2. From low to high arousal
How can a flash of anger affect us?
Gives us energy and initiative to fight or otherwise take action when necessary
How can persistent anger affect us?
Can cause more harm than whatever we are angry about
What is the catharsis myth?
The idea that we can reduce anger by “releasing” it through aggressive actions
What is the reality behind the catharsis myth?
Expressing anger worsens it and any “release” reinforces the aggression, making it a conditioned habit
What are the different things happiness can be classified as?
- A mood
- An attitude
- A social phenomenon
- A cognitive filter
- A way to stay hopeful, motivated, and connected to others
What is the feel-good, do-good phenomenon?
When in a good mood, we do more for others and vice versa
How did the primary goal of students change from the 60’s to the 70’s?
From developing a meaningful life philosophy to being well-off financially
How has the average income and the percentage of happiness changed in the U.S.?
The income has raised but happiness has remained the same
What is the adaptation-level phenomenon?
When our wealth or other life conditions improve, we are happier compared to our past condition
What happens to our level of happiness after our life conditions improve?
It increases but then adapts as we adjust our expectations
What is relative depravation?
Feeling worse off by comparing yourself to people who are doing better
Who do people tend to compare themselves to?
People who are more successful
What are behaviors that correlate with happiness?
- High self-esteem
- Optimism
- Close relationships
- Work and leisure
- Religious faith
- Sleep and exercise
What is a mood “set point”?
A level of happiness to which we keep returning (suggests a genetic basis for a predisposition)
What is health psychology?
The study of the impacts that emotions, including personality, attitudes, behaviors, and responses to stress can have on our overall health
What are some of the primary topics of study in health psychology?
- The phases of stress response and adaptation
- What stress and health are affected by
What is stress?
The process of appraising and responding to events which we consider threatening or challenging
What is a stressor?
An event or condition which we view as threatening, challenging, or overwhelming
What is appraisal?
Deciding whether to view something as a stressor
What is a stress reaction?
Any emotional and physical responses to the stressor (ex. rapid heartbeat, elevated cortisol levels, and crying)
What does the process of stress include?
The stressor, cognitive appraisal, body response, and coping strategies
What is the advantage of breaking “stress” into different components?
We can see options for altering each of these different factors
How can a brief experience of stress be beneficial?
- improving immune system response
- Motivating action
- Focusing priorities
- Feeling engaged, energized, and satisfied
- Providing challenges that encourage growth,
knowledge, and self-esteem
How can extreme, or prolonged, stress cause problems?
- Mental and physical coping systems become
overwhelmed and defeated rather than strengthened - Immune functioning and other health factors decline because of damage
What are the four categories of stressors?
- Catastrophes
- Significant life changes
- Chronic daily hassles
- Low social status/power
When is appraisal not essential?
In catastrophic events
What do the short-term effects of catastrophic events include?
Increased heart attacks on the day of the event
What do the long-term effects of catastrophic events include?
Depression, nightmares, anxiety, and flashbacks
What can increase the negative impacts of challenges on health?
- Painful changes (ex. death in family, loss of job, heart attack)
- Changes are in a cluster and there are too many at once
What causes daily difficulties?
Too many tasks, too little time, and too little control
What is phase 1 of the body’s stress response system?
“Fight or flight” sympathetic nervous system responds, reducing pain and increasing heart rate, and adrenal gland core produces norepinephrine and epinephrine (adrenaline)
Who discovered phase 1 of the body’s stress response system?
Walter Cannon (1871-1945)
What is phase 2 of the body’s stress response?
Brain sends signals to outer part of adrenal glands to produce cortisol and other stress hormones
Who discovered phase 2 of the body’s stress response system?
Hans Selye (1907-1982)
What are the phases of the body’s stress response system?
- Alarm reaction
- Resistance
- Exhaustion
What is GAS?
General Adaptation Syndrome
What happens after repeated and prolonged stress with too much phase 3 time?
Various signs of physical deterioration and premature aging
How do females react to stress?
Show behavioral and neurological signs of becoming more empathetic
How do males react to stress?
Show less empathy and become more aggressive
What is psycho-neuroimmunology?
The study of how interacting psychological, neural, and endocrine processes affect health
Why do psychologists no longer use the term “psychosomatic”?
It has come to mean an imagined illness
What is a psychophysiological illness?
A real illness caused in part by psychological factors such as the experience of stress
What are the main factors of psycho-neuroimmunology?
- Psychological factors (appraisal, thoughts, feelings)
- Neurological factors (brain signals engaging stress response system)
- Immunology (suppresses immune system)
How can stress affect the progression of AIDS?
Since it affects immune deficiency, reducing stress can slow the progression
What factors contribute to heart disease?
- Biological (genetic predisposition)
- Behavioral (smoking, inactivity, etc.)
- Psychological (chronic stress, personality styles)
What are the characteristics of a Type A personality?
Impatience, verbal aggression, and ambition
What are the characteristics of a Type B personality?
Relaxed, “go with the flow”
What personality type is more prone to heart attacks?
Type A
What is pessimism?
The assumption that negative outcomes will happen and often facing them by complaining and/or giving up
Why might depression and heart disease be related?
Both caused by chronic stress and are linked to inflammation
What is cortisol?
The stress hormone that helps the body respond to brief stress
When can cortisol damage the body?
When they reach chronically high levels
What is problem-focused coping?
Reducing the stressors by working out a conflict or tackling a difficult project
What is the risk of problem-focused coping?
Magnifying emotional distress, especially if trying to change something
What is emotion-focused coping?
Reducing the emotional impact of stress by getting support, comfort, and perspective from others
What is the risk of emotion-focused coping?
Ignoring the problem, especially when the stressor is perceived as something that cannot be changed
What was found in an experiment regarding rats and perceived level of control?
The rat that could not control the shocks had the highest stress levels
How can aerobic exercise improve health?
Triggers genes to produce proteins that guard against more than 20 chronic diseases and conditions, reducing risk of of heart disease, cognitive decline and dementia, and early death
What is personality?
An individual’s characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors
What do psychodynamic/psychoanalytical theories focus on?
The inner and outer forces that interact to make us who we are
How does behavior, as well as human emotion and personality, develop?
In a dynamic (interchanging, changing) interplay between conscious and unconscious processes
How did Freud initially approach psychoanalysis?
Became aware that many powerful mental processes operate in the unconscious without our awareness
What are the three models of psychoanalytical thought?
- Affect-trauma model
- Topographic, drive-theory model
- Structural model of id, ego, and superego
What techniques did Freud use for revealing childhood trauma?
Creative techniques like free association, where he encouraged patients to speak whatever came to mind and then traced the traumatic roots of adult symptoms
What did Freud discover about the Childhood Self?
It is overwhelmed by experiences that cannot be processed in an organized (verbal) way
What did Freud suspect about his patients’ recollections of childhood trauma (especially sexual abuse)?
That these memories were wish-fulfillments, generated by libidinal drives
What are the different psychoanalysis techniques?
- Free association
- Slips of the tongue
- Dreams
How was personality believed to be developed?
From the efforts of our ego (rational self) to resolve tension between our id (biological drives) and superego (society’s rules and constraints)
What did Freud believe the Unconscious to be?
A reservoir of thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories that are hidden from awareness because they feel unacceptable
What part of the body does the id focus on?
Erogenous zones
What did Freud believe about the id?
People are ashamed of these needs and can get fixated at one stage, never resolving how to manage that zone’s needs
What are the stages of the developing personality?
- Start life with personality made up by the id, meeting basic needs
- As a toddler, the ego develops with thoughts, judgements, and memories
- Around 4-5, the superego develops as a conscience internalized from parents and society
How does the ego work in the three-part system?
It is the “executive”, managing bodily needs and wishes in a socially acceptable way
What is the Oedipus Complex?
The belief that men begin to develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother and a rivalry against their fathers
What did Freud believe about anxiety?
We are anxious about our unacceptable wishes and impulses
What was Freud’s definition of regression?
Retreating to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated
What was Freud’s definition of reaction formation?
Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites
What was Freud’s definition of projection?
Disguising one’s own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
What was Freud’s definition of rationalization?
Offering self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening unconscious reasons’s for one’s actions
What was Freud’s definition of displacement?
Shifting sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person
What was Freud’s definition of denial?
Refusing to believe or even perceive painful realities
What is the common theme behind defense mechanisms?
They seek to prevent being conscious of unacceptable feelings
How did Adler and Horney’s beliefs differ from Freud’s?
Believed that anxiety and personality are a function of social, not sexual tensions in childhood
How did Jung’s beliefs differ from Freud’s?
Believed that we have a collective unconscious containing images from our species’ experiences
What was Carl Jung’s focus in psychodynamic theories?
Universal themes in the unconscious as a source of creativity and insight
What was Alfred Adler’s focus in psychodynamic theories?
The fight against feelings of inferiority as a theme at the core of personality
What was Karen Horney’s focus in psychodynamic theories?
Criticized the Freudian portrayal of women as weak and subordinate to men and highlighted the need to feel secure in relationships
What are projective tests?
A structured, systematic exposure to a standardized set of ambiguous prompts, designed to reveal inner dynamics
What is the problem with projective tests?
Results don’t link well to traits (low validity) and different raters get different results (low reliability)
What are the flaws in Freud’s scientific method?
- Unfalsifiability
- Unrepresentative sampling
- Biased observations
- Post facto explanations
What are examples of processes operating at an unconscious level?
- Schemas guide perception
- Right hemisphere makes choices that left does not verbalize
- Conditioned responses and learned skills guide our actions without conscious recall
- Emotions get activated
- Stereotypes influence reactions
- Priming affects choices
What “Third Force” did Maslow and Rogers offer?
The Humanistic Perspective
What was the ultimate goal of Maslow’s hierarchy?
Self-actualization and fulfilling’s one’s potential
What three conditions did Rogers believe facilitates growth?
- Genuineness
- Acceptance (Unconditional Positive Regard)
- Empathy
In the humanistic perspective, what is the core of personality?
Self-concept (our sense of nature and identitiy)
What did Rogers believe about “evil”?
Saw evil as a social phenomenon rather than an individualistic trait
What is the humanistic response?
Self-acceptance is not the end; it allows us to move on to loving and caring for others
What is a personality trait?
An enduring quality that makes a person tend to act a certain way
What is a trait theory of personality?
That we are made up of a collection of traits and behavioral predispositions that can be identified and measured, with traits that differ from person to person
What is factor analysis?
Identifying factors that tend to cluster together
What did Hans and Sybil Eysenck find using factor analysis?
Many personality traits are a function of two basic dimensions along which we all vary
How does the brain relate to traits?
Extraverts tend to have low levels of brain activity, making it hard to suppress impulses
How do genes relate to traits?
Selective breeding of animals creates lifelong differences in traits, suggesting a genetic root
How does the body relate to traits?
Shyness appears to be related to high autonomic system reactivity (easily triggered alarm system)
What is the Personality Inventory?
A questionnaire assessing many personality traits by asking which behaviors and responses the person would choose
What is an empirically derived test?
All test items have been selected because they predictably match the qualities being assessed
What is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory?
Test designed to identify people with personality difficulties
What is a T/F questionnaire?
Items are selected because they correlate with various traits, emotions, and attitudes
What are the “Big Five” (CANOE) Personality Factors?
- Conscientiousness
- Agreeableness
- Neuroticism
- Openness
- Extraversion
Do traits change throughout a lifespan?
No, however people tend to become more conscientious and less extraverted in adulthood
How are traits genetically inherited?
Account for 50% of variation in most traits
What was Albert Bandura’s definition of personality?
The result of an interaction that takes place between a person and their social context, involving how we think about ourselves and our situations
What is a reciprocal influence?
A back-and-forth influence with no primary cause
What is reciprocal determinism?
How personality, thoughts, and social environment all reinforce/cause each other
What is a locus of control?
Perception of where the seat of power over our lives is located
What is an internal locus of control?
We feel that we are in charge of ourselves and our circumstances
What is an external locus of control?
We picture that a force outside of ourselves controls our fate
What is the downside of too much internal locus?
We blame ourselves for bad events or believe we have the power to prevent them
What is the downside of too much external locus?
We lose initiative and motivation while having more anxiety
What is willpower?
The ability to control impulses and delay gratification
What is the Marshmallow Study?
Kids who resisted the temptation to eat marshmallows later had more success in school and socially
What is learned helplessness?
Declining to help oneself after repeated attempts to do so have failed
What is a prediction in optimism/pessimism?
Expecting the best/worst
What is a focus of attention in optimism/pessimism?
Focusing on what we have/don’t have
What is an attribution of intent in optimism/pessimism?
Assuming that people meant to hurt us or that they were having a bad day
What is valuation in optimism/pessimism?
Assuming that we or others are useless, or that we are lovable, valuable
What is the potential for change in optimism/pessimism?
Assuming that bad things can’t be changed, or have hope
Who developed Positive Psychology?
Martin Seligman
What is Positive Psychology?
The scientific study of optimal human functioning
What is the focus of Positive Psychology?
Building strengths, virtue, emotional well-being, resilience, optimism, and sense of meaning
What are the three pillars of Positive Psychology?
- Emotions, (engagement)
- Character, (courage)
- Groups, Culture, Institutions
What is the Spotlight Effect?
Assuming that people have attention focused on
you when they actually may not be noticing you (adolescent egocentrism)
What is Self-Serving Bias?
The belief that we are above average
What are Psychological Disorders?
Patterns of thoughts, feelings, or actions that are deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional
When is a behavior or mental state considered “deviant” in psychology?
When it is different from what would be expected within a culture
What are the emotional-cognitive symptoms of GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)?
Worrying, having anxious feelings and thoughts about different subjects, and sometimes having free-floating anxiety
What are the physical symptoms of GAD (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)?
Autonomic arousal, trembling, sweating, fidgeting, agitation, and sleep disruption
What is a Panic Disorder?
Repeated and unexpected panic attacks, as well as a fear of the next attack, and a change in behavior to avoid them
When is a specific phobia diagnosed?
When there is an uncontrollable, irrational, intense desire to avoid the same object or situation
When is OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder) diagnosed?
Distress: when you are deeply frustrated with not being able to control the behaviors
or
Dysfunction: when the time and mental energy spent on these thoughts and behaviors interfere with everyday life
What is the psychodynamic/Freudian perspective of anxiety disorders?
Repressed impulses
What is the classical conditioning perspective of anxiety disorders?
Overgeneralizing a conditioned response
What is the operation conditioning perspective of anxiety disorders?
Rewarding avoidance
What is the observational learning perspective of anxiety disorders?
Worrying like someone (ex. Mom)
What is the cognitive appraisal perspective of anxiety disorders?
Uncertainty is danger
What is the evolutionary perspective of anxiety disorders?
Surviving by avoiding danger
What are the one or two symptoms that are required to diagnose MMD (major depressive disorder)?
- Depressed mood most of the day
- Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in activities
What are the symptoms of which three are required to diagnose MMD (major depressive disorder)?
- Significant increase or decrease in appetite or weight
- Insomnia, sleeping too much, or disrupted sleep
- Lethargy, or physical agitation
- Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day
- Worthlessness, or excessive/inappropriate guilt
- Daily problems in thinking, concentrating, and/or
making decisions - Recurring thoughts of death and suicide
When is SAD (Seasonal Affective Disorder) diagnosed?
When there is a recurring seasonal pattern of depression, usually during winter’s short, dark, cold days
What is mania in Bipolar Disorder?
A period of hyper-elevated mood that is euphoric, giddy, easily irritated, hyperactive, impulsive, overly optimistic, and even grandiose
What is the diagnosis for children that replaced Bipolar Disorder?
Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (DMDD)
What happens to brain activity during depression and mania?
It decreases during depression and increases during mania
What happens to brain structure during depression?
The frontal lobes shrink
What happens to brain structure during bipolar disorder?
There are fewer axons
What happens to brain cell communication (neurotransmitters) during depression?
Less norepinephrine and reduced serotonin
What is schizophrenia?
The mind is split from reality and there is a split from one’s own thoughts so that they appear as hallucinations
What is psychosis?
A mental split from reality and rationality
What are the symptoms of schizophrenia?
- Disorganized and/or delusional thinking
- Disturbed perceptions
- Inappropriate emotions and actions
What are the positive (presence of problematic behaviors) symptoms of schizophrenia?
- Hallucinations (illusory perceptions), especially auditory
- Delusions (illusory beliefs), especially persecutory
- Disorganized thought and nonsensical speech
- Bizarre behaviors
What are the negative (absence of healthy behaviors) symptoms of schizophrenia?
- Flat affect (no emotion showing in the face)
- Reduced social interaction
- Anhedonia (no feeling of enjoyment)
- Avolition (less motivation, initiative, focus on tasks)
- Alogia (speaking less)
- Catatonia (moving less)
How does schizophrenia manifest in thinking and speaking?
- Disorganized speech
- Delusions
- Problem with selective attention
What are the subtypes of schizophrenia?
- Paranoid
- Disorganized
- Catatonic
- Undifferentiated
- Residual
What happens to the brain with schizophrenia?
- Too many dopamine/D4 receptors
- Poor coordination of neural firing in frontal lobes
- Thalamus fires during hallucinations
- General shrinking of many brain areas and connections
What is psychotherapy?
An interactive experience with a trained professional,
working on understanding and changing behavior, thinking, emotions & relationships
What is biomedical therapy?
The use of medications and other procedures acting directly on the body to reduce the symptoms of mental disorders
What are the different schools of psychotherapy?
- Psychoanalysis, psychodynamic therapy
- Humanistic, client-centered therapy
- Behavior therapy, using conditioning
- Cognitive therapy, changing thoughts
