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Principals of Evolution > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

life history

A

life history is an individual’s pattern of allocation, throughout life, of time and energy to various fundamental activities such as growth, body repair, metabolism, and reproduction

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2
Q

lifetime reproductive success

A

the number of offspring produced by an individual in their lifetime

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3
Q

life history of the ideal organism

A
  • mature at birth
  • live forever
  • produce large and numerous offspring
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4
Q

senescence

A

a decline with age in reproductive performance, physiological function, or probability of survival

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5
Q

does senescence increase or decrease an individuals fitness?

A

decreases

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6
Q

mutation accumulation hypothesis for senescence

A

mutations that impact fitness late in life are under weak selection

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7
Q

selection on late-acting mutations is ….

A

weak

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8
Q

selection of early- acting mutations is ….

A

strong

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9
Q

antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis for senescence

A

mutations conferring fitness benefits early in life and fitness costs late in life will be under positive selection when the benefits outweigh the costs

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10
Q

in the study of Chinook salmon, do hatcheries select for large or small eggs?

A

the optimal egg size in the hatchery is smaller than in nature, and egg mass has evolved a smaller size in the hatchery

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11
Q

what is the impact of hatchery fish on natural populations?

A

rivers that receive lots of hatchery fry have evolved smaller eggs as a consequence of gene flow from the hatchery fish

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12
Q

Lack’s hypothesis for optimal number of offspring

A

states that natural selection will favor the clutch size that maximizes the number of surviving offspring

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13
Q

sexual dimorphism

A

a difference between the phenotypes of females vs males within a population

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14
Q

natural selection

A
  • a difference between the survival or reproduction of individuals with different phenotypes
  • usually refers to components of fitness other than mating success
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15
Q

sexual selection

A

a difference among members of the same sex, between the average mating success of individuals with different phenotypes, a special kind of natural selection

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16
Q

in what ways do females and males differ in reproductive investment?

A

sperm is ‘cheaper’ than eggs

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17
Q

how is sperm cheaper than eggs?

A
  • eggs are 4000 times larger than sperm
  • women ovulate ~300 to 400 eggs in their lifetimes
  • men make tens of millions of sperm everyday
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18
Q

sexes differ in reproductive variance

A
  • male reproduction is limited by access to female eggs
  • females are limited by the number of eggs she can nurture and rear to maturity
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19
Q

Bateman’s principle

A
  • theory when one sex invests more resources into producing offspring
  • this sex will be a limiting resource over which the other sex will compete
  • access to mates will usually limit male reproductive success, but the number of pregnancies will usually limit female reproductive success
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20
Q

Bateman’s gradient

A
  • the slope of the best fit line relating reproductive output to mating opportunities
  • strongly positive for males
  • horizontal or weakly positive for females
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21
Q

Bateman’s gradient axis

A
  • x axis = number of mates
  • y axis = number of offspring
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22
Q

members of the sex subject to strong sexual selection will ________ for mates

A

compete

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23
Q

members of the sex subject to weak sexual selection will be _______

A

choosy

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24
Q

are females always the choosier sex?

A

no, males can invest more than females

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25
Q

example of males being the choosier sex

A

broad-nose pipefish

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26
Q

intersexual selection

A
  • one sex developing or displaying traits or behavior patterns to attract the opposite sex
  • male to male competition
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27
Q

types of male-male competition

A
  • combat
  • defenses
  • indications of strength
  • infanticide
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28
Q

male-male competition: combat

A
  • horns
  • antlers
  • pincers
  • body size
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29
Q

male-male competition: defenses

A
  • armor
  • large body size
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30
Q

is sperm competition intersexual or intrasexual selection?

A

intersexual selection

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31
Q

sperm competition

A
  • large testes
  • sperm plugs
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32
Q

sperm competition in fruit bats

A
  • increased ejaculate
  • mate guard
  • sperm plugs
  • inject hormones that influence female reproductive behavior
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33
Q

jack strategy in Salmon

A

occupy refuges or areas near spawning areas to sneak sperm to fertilize eggs that are being laid

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34
Q

How is the rock-paper-scissor game in the Side-blotched Lizard an example of negative frequency dependent selection?

A
  • orange: large size, high testosterone, large territories
  • blue: cooperates with other blues, mate guarder, small territoreis
  • yellow: sneaker, mimics female behavior and coloration, not territorial
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35
Q

negative frequency dependent selection

A

selects for rare phenotypes in a population and increases a populations genetic variance

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36
Q

what do male damselflies do before transferring sperm to a female?

A

males remove rivals sperm stored by female, reducing sperm competition

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37
Q

why is male damselflies transferring sperm to females an example of sperm competition?

A

because they use their genital ligula to preform that and it involves sperm

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38
Q

do humans have larger or smaller testes than expected given their body size?

A

smaller

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39
Q

why do males have small testes compared to body size?

A
  • humans tend to have one mate at a time and don’t try to mate with many females at one
  • no sperm competition
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40
Q

do chimps have larger or smaller testes than expected given their body size?

A

larger than expected

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41
Q

why are chimps testes larger than expected?

A

chimps have multiple male-breeding systems, have to compete with other males to breed with females

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42
Q

why do male lions commonly commit infanticide?

A
  • female lions return to breeding conditions on average 8 months sooner
  • the cub is not their own
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43
Q

intersexual selection

A

when one sex chooses which members of the opposite sex to mate with

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44
Q

intrasexual selection

A

members of the same sex compete with each other for mates

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45
Q

Who was Darwin’s brother?

A

Erasmus Darwin

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46
Q

What did Darwin study at the University of Edenborough?

A

medicine

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47
Q

What did Darwin study at Cambridge?

A

he studied to be an Anglican clergyman

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48
Q

what boat did Darwin sail around the world? who was the captian?

A
  • H.M.S Beagle
  • Captain Robert FitzRoy
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49
Q

For what time period was Darwin at sea?

A

1831-1836

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50
Q

Why is Lyell considered a descendent of Hutton?

A

he ‘revived’ Hutton through his own work on uniformitarians and gradualism

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51
Q

What book of Lyell’s influenced Darwin?

A

“principles of geology”

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52
Q

true/false: Darwin came up with the idea of natural selection while sailing around the world

A

False, he came up with the idea in 1838

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53
Q

true/false: Darwin thought of evolution and natural selection at the same time

A

false, evolution in 1837 and natural selection in 1838

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54
Q

who was Emma Darwin?

A

Darwin’s cousin who married him

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55
Q

Alfred Russel Wallace

A

co-discoverer of natural selection

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56
Q

Why did Wallace send his paper to Darwin before publishing it?

A

Darwin was one of few who thought natural selection was a big deal at the time

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57
Q

Malthus wrote a book called “An essay on the principle of population.” How did this influence Darwin and Wallace?

A

Darwin thought of the theory of natural selection immediately after reading it

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58
Q

When was the Origin of Species published?

A

1859

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59
Q

What were the major proposals in “The Origin of Species” discussed in lecture?

A
  • evolution
  • natural selection
  • Tree of Life
  • life is old
  • extinction is real
  • gradual changes (species formation)
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60
Q

why might avocados have gone extinct at the end of the Pleistocene if it weren’t for humans?

A

they seem to have evolved giant pits to be passed by giant animals, but since they all went extinct, we still eat them without having to eat the pits

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61
Q

2 main hypotheses for the Pleistocene Megafaunal extinctions

A
  • climate change
  • hunting by humans
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62
Q

2 main hypotheses for the Pleistocene Megafaunal extinctions: climate change

A
  • couldn’t survive or adapt to changing environment
  • megafauna survived many glacial cycles throughout the Pleistocene
  • if climate change wasn’t the reason, we’d expect all megafauna to be affected around the same time
63
Q

2 main hypotheses for the Pleistocene Megafaunal extinctions: hunting by humans

A
  • megafauna extinctions and human colonization happened around the same times
  • human populations in some areas might have been to small to have such a great impact
  • not enough evidence of megafaunal remains at archeological sites
64
Q

Pleistocene megafauna

A

large-bodied mammals, reptiles, and birds

65
Q

female choice

A
  • females are choosy about what mates they want
  • results in elaborate traits or displays to impress females
66
Q

example of female choice

A

females prefer red-collared widow birds with longer tails

67
Q

good genes model of female choice

A
  • females that prefer males with good indicator traits that will have offspring with better genes
  • indirect genetic benefits
68
Q

how to test the good genes model

A
  • look at tadpoles of long-calling males of frogs
  • tadpoles grew faster, metamorphosed sooner, and survived better
69
Q

direct benefits of female choice

A

females prefer males with resources or other attributes that help them now

70
Q

how to test the direct benefits of female choice

A

watch a species that shows males that have goof foraging or nest building skills vs males that don’t and see who the females pick

71
Q

sensory bias

A

taking advantage of female sensory system

72
Q

how to test for sensory bias

A

see what call females prefer in a species over a different call

73
Q

chase-away sexual selection

A

males evolve mechanisms that increase their reproductive success, so females evolve counter adaptations, then males evolve in response to females

74
Q

the result of chase-away sexual selection

A

continual selection and evolution

75
Q

parthenogenesis

A

skipping sex to reproduce

76
Q

facultative parthenogenesis

A

only using sex sometimes

77
Q

example of facultative parthenogenesis

A

aphids are all female in the summer, sexual in the fall

78
Q

what is the two-fold cost of sex?

A
  • the production of males in a population reduces its reproductive potential by a factor of 2
  • the higher growth rate of asexual individuals means that they should quickly come to dominate a population all else being equal
79
Q

how much of their DNA do parthenogenetic individuals pass on?

A

females pass on 100% of their DNA

80
Q

Muller’s ratchet

A

cost of forgoing sex

81
Q

how does sex break Muller’s ratchet?

A

asexual individuals pass on all of her mutations including the deleterious mutations, deleterious mutations will accumulate

82
Q

How does sex bring together beneficial mutations?

A
  • recombination from sex allows a population to purge deleterious alleles
  • no-mutation group can be reconstituted by recombination
83
Q

Red Queen hypothesis

A

species must continuously evolve to keep up with enemies who are also evolving

84
Q

genetic load

A

accumulation of mutations in a population

85
Q

why might selection in a population favor asexual individuals?

A

asexual individuals pass on 100% of their DNA and if passing on genes to future generations is related to fitness

86
Q

why might selection in a population favor sexual species?

A
  • sex brings together beneficial alleles, they don’t all need to evolve in one lineage
  • recombination allows population to purge deleterious alleles
87
Q

when is facultative parthenogenesis useful?

A

when reproduction is needed and a mate cannot be found

88
Q

why is facultative parthenogenesis better than being completely asexual?

A

there is still a chance for recombination of genes to get rid of the deleterious alleles that can accumulate with just asexual reproduction because sexual reproduction still occurs

89
Q

cryptic species

A
  • a species in which a group of species contains individuals that are morphologically identical to each other but belong to different species
  • lack of variance between species
90
Q

why is the General Lineage Concept often referred to as “unifying” within the species concept debate?

A
  • makes the case that most of the major species concepts are NOT concepts
  • based on species as evolutionary lineages
  • all have value in different situations
91
Q

lineage

A

sequences of biological entities connected by ancestry-decent relationships

92
Q

genes trees vs species trees

A

gene trees match species trees

93
Q

gene trees

A

represent evolutionary history of genes included in the study and species trees recover the genealogy of taxa, individuals of a population, etc

94
Q

allopatric

A

the evolution of distinct species when populations are geographically separated by an extrinsic barrier

95
Q

two modes of allopatry

A
  • vicariance
  • dispersal
96
Q

parapatric

A

the evolution of separate species that are continuously distributed, but non-overlapping, in space

97
Q

ecotone

A

a transition between two adjacent but different patches of landscape

98
Q

sympatric

A

the evolution of separate species within a shared geographic range

99
Q

vicariance

A

occurs when a natural situation arises to physically divide organisms (changes in environment)

100
Q

example of vicariance

A

splitting of an island into two separate islands

101
Q

dispersal

A

occurs when few members of a species move to a new geographical area

102
Q

older islands =

A

more ancient lineage and young island = more recent lineage

103
Q

which mode of speciation is also called “divergence with gene flow”

A

parapatric speciation

104
Q

what is the central challenge of parapatric speciation?

A

natural selection must overpower gene flow along the boarder where the ranges meet

105
Q

which mode of speciation may be of importance for speciation in insects that are tied to particular plant species?

A

sympatric speciation

106
Q

reproductive isolating mechanism

A

factors that cause individuals from different groups to fail to mate or fail to produce viable offspring

107
Q

prezygotic isolation

A

reproductive isolation between populations due to factors that prevent mating or formation of a zygote

108
Q

postzygotic isolation

A

mating may occur, but the zygote does not develop properly or the offspring are not viable

109
Q

intrinstic postzygotic isolation

A
  • zygotic mortality
  • hybrid inviability
  • hybrid sterility
110
Q

zygotic mortality

A

the egg is fertilized, but the zygote does not develop

111
Q

hybrid inviability

A

hybrid embryo forms, but the hybrid has developmental or physiological deficiencies

112
Q

hybrid sterility

A

hybrid is viable, but the resulting adult is sterile

113
Q

example of hybrid sterility

A
  • donkeys and horses can mate to make a mule
  • mules are very vigorous but sterile
114
Q

extrinsic inviability

A

ecological inviability

115
Q

ecological inviability

A

hybrids develop normally but suffer low viability because they lack an ecological niche or do not make choices that confer high fitness

116
Q

genetic drift

A
  • may play a role in allopatric speciation
  • change in frequency of an existing gene variant in a population due to a random sampling of organisms
117
Q

founder effects

A

loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population

118
Q

population bottleneck

A

sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events or human activities

119
Q

in general, is there natural selection for speciation?

A

yes

120
Q

what is the one instance in which natural selection may directly promote speciation?

A

speciation is a byproduct of natural selection

121
Q

ecological speciation

A

barriers to gene flow evolve among populations as a result of ecologically-based divergent natural selection

122
Q

how does parallel speciation in sticklebacks work?

A
  • the evolution of benthic and limnetic morphs in stickleback: morphs have evolved repeatedly, benthic forms from different lakes readily mate, but don’t readily mate with limnetic forms and vice versa, the result of divergent natural selection
  • an example of ecologically mediated speciation
123
Q

reinforcement

A

the only mechanism by which speciation is the direct target of natural selection, diverge in allopatry, secondary contact with hybrid zone, if hybrids unfit, natural selection promotes the evolution of assortative mating

124
Q

reproductive character displacement

A

occurs when sympatric and allopatric populations of a species differ in traits crucial to reproduction, and normally thought as a signal of selection acting to limit hybridization

125
Q

3 principles of biogeography

A
  • all species have a geographic distribution
  • the earth has changed dramatically through time
  • species distributions change through time, as so the species themselves
126
Q

historical biogeography circumstances

A

study of historical circumstances that contribute to the distribution of taxa

127
Q

questions of historical biogeographic circumstances

A
  • where did species originate?
  • where did species colonize their present distributions?
128
Q

ecological biogeography

A

study of ecological circumstances that contribute to the distribution of taxa

129
Q

questions of ecological biogeographic circumstances

A
  • how does this location differ in climate, primary, productivity, etc?
  • do species interactions differ in different locations?
130
Q

endemic

A

restriction of taxon/taxa to a certain region or locality

131
Q

Collared lemmings are found in arctic tundra, but we know they were once found as far south as West Virginia. How do we know that?

A

fossils of Pleistocene collared lemmings have been found

132
Q

how do species respond to a changing climate?

A
  • move
  • adapt
  • go extinct
133
Q

Wallace’s line

A

a “line” in the ocean where the water is too deep for the surrounding islands to have any species interactions

134
Q

altruism

A

actor is harmed and recipient benefits

135
Q

cooperation

A

actor benefits and recipients benefits

136
Q

selfishness

A

actor benefits and recipients are harmed

137
Q

spite

A

actor and recipients are harmed

138
Q

why is altruism a problem for natural selection?

A

contrasts with how Darwin thunks that individuals should act

139
Q

inclusive fitness

A

direct fitness and indirect fitness

140
Q

direct fitness

A

personal reproduction

141
Q

indirect fitness

A

the additional reproduction by relatives that is made possible by an individuals action

142
Q

kin selection

A

natural selection favoring the spread of alleles that increase indirect fitness

143
Q

Hamiltons Rule

A

Br - C > 0
r = relatedness
B = the benefit to the recipient
C = the cost to the actor

144
Q

adaptive radiation

A
  • the evolution of ecological and phenotypic diversity within a rapidly evolving lineage
  • involves the differentiation of a single ancestor into an array of species that inhabit a variety of environments and that differ in the morphological and physiological traits used to exploit those environments
145
Q

example of adaptive radiation

A
  • Darwin’s Finches
  • Cichlid Fishes
  • Anolis Lizards
146
Q

what are the criteria for identifying an adaptive radiation?

A
  • common ancestry
  • trait divergence
  • rapid speciation
147
Q

two causes of adaptive radiation

A
  • ecological opportunity
  • key innovations
148
Q

causes for the end permian extinction event

A
  • sea level changes
  • ocean chem
  • volcanos
  • impact by an asteroid
  • synergism
149
Q

End-Permian extinction event: sea level changes

A
  • sea levels dramatically dropped
  • 10% of shallow seas remained
150
Q

End-Permian extinction event: ocean chem

A

deep water environments were anoxic

151
Q

End-Permian extinction event: volcanos

A

released CO2 may have resulted in global warming

152
Q

End-Permian extinction event: impact by an asteroid

A

impact may have set off volcanos

153
Q

synergism

A

world went to hell hypothesis

154
Q

what was the biggest mass extinction event ever and when did it happen?

A
  • End-Permian Extinction
  • 251.9 mya

Principals of Evolution (18 decks)

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