Final Exam Flashcards
(449 cards)
1
Q
what does the the spinal cord run between
A
medulla oblongata to L1 or L2
2
Q
what is the main function of the spinal cord
A
connects lower PNS with the brain
3
Q
what pathways in the spinal cord are made of white matter
A
sensory/motor pathways up to and from the brain
4
Q
what center in the spinal cord is made of gray matter
A
reflex center
5
Q
what are the meningeal layers of the spinal cord
A
dura mater
arachnoid mater
pia mater
6
Q
what is the epidural space of the spinal cord
A
fat-filled space around the dura mater
7
Q
what is the subarachnoid space of the spinal cord
A
the space that contains CSF
8
Q
what is the purpose of a lumbar puncture
A
to look at the CSF in subarachnoid space
9
Q
what do bulges of the spinal cord indicate
A
regions where a larger number of neurons are entering/leaving the spinal cord
10
Q
what does the myelinated (white matter) in the spinal cord create
A
columns
11
Q
what does white matter in the spinal cord transport to the brain
A
sensory info
12
Q
what does white matter in the spinal cord transport away from the brain
A
motor info
13
Q
what are the ascending tracts of the spinal cord
A
exclusively sensory neuron axons
14
Q
what are the descending tracts of the spinal cord
A
exclusively motor neuron axons
15
Q
what are the commissural tracts of the spinal cord
A
interneurons that carry information from one side of the spinal cord to the other side
16
Q
what are the three major columns on each side of the spinal cord
A
dorsal funiculus, lateral funiculus, ventral funiculus
17
Q
what are the major columns on the sides of the spinal cord called
A
funiculi
18
Q
what is grey matter of the spinal cord made of
A
neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, glia, nonmyelinated axons
19
Q
what leaves the spinal cord at ventral horns
A
neurons associated with motor functions
20
Q
where are visceral motor neurons (ANS) located
A
lateral horns of spinal cord
21
Q
what regions of the spinal cord are lateral horns found in
A
thoracic and upper lumbar regions of the spinal cord
22
Q
where do sensory neurons enter the spinal cord
A
dorsal horns
23
Q
where are somatic sensory and visceral sensory cell bodies located in spinal cord
A
dorsal root ganglia
24
Q
where are somatic motor cell bodies in spinal cord
A
ventral horns
25
where do axons of somatic motor neurons in the spinal cord exit
ventral root
26
where are visceral motor cell bodies located in the spinal cord
lateral horns
27
where do visceral motor neurons exit the spinal cord
through the ventral root
28
what do dorsal roots do
transport sensory info into spinal cord
29
what do ventral roots do
transport motor info away from spinal cord
30
what are spinal nerves made of
both ventral and dorsal roots
31
what is an example of an ascending sensory pathway
1. sensory receptors activated
2. sensory neurons synapse with interneurons within the dorsal horn of spinal cord gray matter
3. interneurons transport signal via ascending tracts to thalamus
4. ascending tracts to somatosensory cortex
32
what is decussation
axons from one side to the other
33
what is an example of a descending motor pathway
1. primary motor cortex initiates a response
2. interneurons transport signal to appropriate region of spinal cord
3. interneurons synapse within ventral horns with motor neuron
4. motor neuron transports signal to cells of action
34
what is the reflex arc
an automatic and rapid motor response
35
does the reflex arc require input from the brain
no
36
what are the two types of reflex arcs
monosynaptic
polysynaptic
37
what is a monosynaptic reflex
axon terminals of sensory neurons directly synapse on motor neuron within the spinal cord
38
how many neurons are involved in a monosynaptic reflex
two
39
how many synapses are involved in a monosynaptic reflex
one
40
are interneurons involved in monosynaptic reflexes
no
41
what is a polysynaptic reflex
axon terminals of sensory neurons connected via one or more interneurons to a motor neuron
42
how many neurons are involved in a polysynaptic reflex
3 or more
43
how many synapses are involved in a polysynaptic reflex
2 or more
44
are interneurons involved in a polysynaptic reflex
yes (creates multiple synapses)
45
what is the autonomic nervous system a part of
the peripheral nervous system
46
is the ANS under voluntary or involuntary control
involuntary
47
what three things does the ANS innervate
smooth muscle
cardiac muscle
glands
48
what is the ANS also called
visceral motor
49
how many neurons are involved in somatic motor
one motor neuron runs between the spinal cord and skeletal muscle
50
how many neurons are involved in the visceral motor (ANS)
two motor neurons run between spinal cord and target tissue
51
what are the two motor neurons involved in the ANS
preganglionic neuron
postganglionic neuron
52
within what do the preganglionic and postganglionic neurons synapse
within an autonomic ganglion
53
what are the general functions of the ANS
works in conjunction with the visceral sensory division
self-governing and involuntary motor responses
54
what are the two divisions of the ANS
parasympathetic
sympathetic
55
what are the characteristics of the parasympathetic division
rest and digest
conserves energy and oversees standard bodily functions
56
what are the characteristics of the sympathetic division
fight, fright, flight
mobilizes body in extreme situations
57
is the parasympathetic or sympathetic division a short term response that requires a lot of energy
sympathetic
58
does the parasympathetic or sympathetic division have more organs involved
sympathetic division
59
what is homeostasis
a balance between the two autonomic branches
60
where does the parasympathetic exit from
brainstem and sacral spinal nerves
61
where does the sympathetic exit from
thoracic and lumbar regions
62
in the parasympathetic pathway, which axon is long and which is short
preganglionic axon: long
postganglionic axon: short
63
in the parasympathetic pathway, where is the autonomic ganglion located
near or within target tissue
64
in the parasympathetic pathway, what is released within the autonomic ganglion
ACh
65
in the parasympathetic pathway, what is released between the postganglionic axon and the tissue
ACh
66
what is the vagus nerve
cranial nerve that contains 90% of the preganglionic parasympathetic fibers in the body
67
what is the purpose of the vagus nerve
to bring typical rest and digest activities in visceral muscle and glands
68
in the sympathetic pathway, which axon is short and which is long
preganglionic axon: short
postganglionic axon: long
69
where is the autonomic ganglion in the sympathetic pathway
near the spinal cord
70
in the sympathetic pathway, what is released within the autonomic ganglion
ACh
71
in the sympathetic pathway, what is released in between the postganglionic axon and tissue
norepinephrine
72
what is the sympathetic trunk ganglia
expansions of sympathetic trunk where pre and post ganglionic neurons synapse
73
what is the sympathetic trunk
a pathway for neurons of the sympathetic division
74
how does the sympathetic trunk run in relation to the spinal cord
parallel
75
where does the adrenal (suprarenal) gland sit
on top of both kidneys
76
what is the internal adrenal medulla a major organ of
the sympathetic nervous system
77
what is the adrenal gland
a specialized sympathetic ganglion that releases two excitatory hormones into the blood during fight or flight response
78
what are the two hormones that the adrenal gland releases
norepinephrine and epinephrine
79
how many pairs of cranial nerves are there
twelve
80
how many pairs of spinal nerves are there
31
81
how many cervical spinal nerves
8
82
how many thoracic spinal nerves
12
83
how many lumbar spinal nerves
5
84
how many sacral spinal nerves
5
85
how many coccygeal spinal nerves
1
86
what is a dermatome
a map showing the relationship between sensory receptors of the skin and the spinal nerves
87
what is paraplegia
loss of feeling/motor functions of legs
88
where is the damage in the spinal cord with paraplegia
between T1 and L2
89
what is quadriplegia
loss of feeling/motor functions of all 4 limbs
90
where is the damage of the spinal cord with quadriplegia
above T1
91
where is the damage if the diaphragm is impacted
above C4
92
what is shingles
a virus that resides in a single dorsal root ganglion from a previous chicken pox infection
93
with shingles, what happens if the immune system is weakened
the virus can multiply, travel along peripheral sensory nerves, and cause painful skin lesions
94
where are shingles lesions located
within a dermatome
95
what are two different types of sensory receptors in the PNS
simple: free nerve ending (dendrite or sensory neuron)
complex: specialized cell
96
what are the five classifications of receptors
mechanoreceptors
thermoreceptors
chemoreceptors
photoreceptors
nociceptors
97
what is echolocation
using echos to help with navigation without sight
98
what kind of pressure does a pacinian corpuscle respond to
deep pressure
99
what is a proprioceptor
encapsulated nerve endings that monitor stretch in locomotory organs (muscles, tendons)
100
what do proprioceptors give awareness of
movement
101
what does the cerebellum do with information from proprioceptors
uses the information to determine where our body parts are in space
102
what is the root hair plexus
free nerve ending wrapped around hair follicle
103
what does the root hair plexus respond to
movement of the hair
104
what are three different types of mechanoreceptors
pacinian corpuscle
proprioceptors
root hair plexus
105
what are thermoreceptors
free nerve endings that respond to temperature changes
106
where are thermoreceptors located
throughout the body
107
what are nociceptors
free nerve endings that respond to mechanical, thermal, or chemical stimuli
108
what is pain
the emotional way that our brain interprets stimulus from nociceptors
109
what are itch receptors
recently discovered free nerve endings
110
what do itch receptors respond to
inflammatory chemicals
111
what is the major difference between nociception and itch
pain elicits a withdraw reflex and itch elicits a scratch reflex
112
what do chemoreceptors respond to
certain chemicals
113
what has chemoreceptors that respond to chemicals of food
taste buds
114
what is the gustatory pathway
chemoreceptor of taste bud --> spinal cord --> thalamus --> gustatory cortex in insula
115
what do photoreceptors respond to
light
116
where are photoreceptors found
retina of the eye
117
what are the peripheral nerves
cranial nerves and spinal nerves
118
what do the spinal nerves split into
the dorsal ramus and the ventral ramus
119
what forms the nerve plexuses
the ventral rami
120
what is the exception to the rule that the ventral rami form the nerve plexuses
the thoracic region
- ventral rami innervate the thoracic cage
121
what does the dorsal ramus do
innervate muscles of the back
122
what is a nerve plexus
a network of nerves that supply specific regions of the body
123
what are the four nerve plexuses
cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral
124
what is the cervical plexus formed from
ventral rami C1-C5
125
what does the cervical plexus innervate
back of the neck and diaphragm
126
what will happen with damage to the phrenic nerve
impaired breathing because the phrenic nerve stimulates the diaphragm
127
what is the brachial plexus formed from
ventral rami C5-T1
128
what does the brachial plexus innervate
upper limbs
129
what is the lumbar plexus formed from
ventral rami L1-L4
130
what does the lumbar plexus innervate
anterior region of the lower limbs
131
what is the sacral plexus formed from
ventral rami L4-S4
132
what does the sacral plexus innervate
posterior region of the lower limbs
133
what is the sciatic nerve formed from
the sacral plexus
134
what is polio
virus that can target motor neurons
135
what determines the level of paralysis in polio patients
which motor neurons are infected
136
what are iron lungs
machines that helped those whose respiratory muscles were paralyzed
137
what is postpolio syndrome
the lose of function of motor neurons after having polio
138
what causes postpolio syndrome
during infection with polio, motor neuron is destroyed but the neighboring neuron is not
-after recovery, the surviving neurons will extend axonal branches to muscles missing innervation and will then over-exert and lose function
139
what are the three special senses receptor types
chemoreceptors
mechanoreceptors
photoreceptors
140
what must be present to receive the information in order to detect a stimulus
a receptor
141
what are the two types of receptors
sensory nerve endings
specialized cells adjacent to sensory nerves
142
what does a stimulus generate
receptor potential
143
what does a receptor potential trigger
an action potential
144
what is a main difference between receptor potentials and action potentials
receptor potentials can be weak or strong
145
where does the action potential travel to
the brain to be "sensed"
146
what do mechanoreceptors detect
changes in pressure or movement
147
what do thermoreceptors detect
temperature change
148
what do nociceptors detect
pain
149
what do chemoreceptors detect
changes in chemical concentrations
150
what do photoreceptors detect
light energy
151
where are special senses localized and confined to
the head region
152
where are taste receptors found
taste buds in the mucosa of the mouth and pharynx
153
what are the three papillae that contain taste buds
circumvallate
fungiform
foliate
154
what papillae do not have taste buds
filiform
155
what do gustatory epithelial cells have
long microvilli called gustatory hairs that extend through taste pore
156
what do basal epithelial cells do
replace old and damaged cells
157
what do dissolved molecules in saliva enter
taste pore
158
what happens when molecules bind to receptors on gustatory hair cells
action potentials are generated, sensory neurons are stimulated, signals are sent to the CNS
159
what are the 5 taste types
sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami
160
what is flavor
a combination of taste, smell, and texture
161
what is the gustatory pathway
taste receptors --> sensory nerve fibers in cranial nerves --> brainstem --> thalamus --> gustatory cortex (insula)
162
which special sense does not go through the thalamus
smell
163
where are olfactory receptors located
olfactory epithelium that covers superior nasal concha and superior nasal septum
164
what kind of neurons are olfactory sensory cells
bipolar neurons
165
what is the purpose of olfactory stem cells
continually form new olfactory sensory neurons
166
what does each bipolar olfactory neuron have
apical dendrite that is near the surface of the epithelium and olfactory cilia
167
where are chemoreceptors located
on olfactory cilia
168
what is the purpose of mucus
trap and dissolve molecules from inhaled air
169
what are the extensions of sensory neurons in the olfactory system
filaments of olfactory nerve
170
where do the filaments of olfactory nerve enter the CNS
through the cribriform plate of ethmoid bone
171
what do the filaments of the olfactory nerve synapse with in the olfactory bulb
mitral cells
172
what is the glomerulus
where the filaments of olfactory nerve synapse with mitral cells
173
where do the extensions from mitral cells relay olfactory information to via the olfactory tract
limbic system
primary olfactory cortex of the temporal lobe
174
what is anosmia
absence of smell
175
what are three causes of anosmia
blow to head/whiplash
colds/allergies
zinc deficiency
176
what are uncinate fits
olfactory hallucinations
177
what is the cause of uncinate fits
brain disorders
178
what is the dominant sense in humans
vision
179
what is the function of eyebrows
shade
prevent sweat from running into eyes
180
what are the palpebrae
eyelids
181
what is the purpose of eyelashes
keep foreign objects out of eye
blinking reflex
182
what is the purpose of the sebaceous glands in palpebrae
lubricate surface of the eye
183
what is a sty
infection of the sebaceous glands in eyelids that are associated with eyelashes
184
what is the palpebral fissure
space between the eyelids
185
what is the lacrimal caruncles
pink raised portion
186
what is the conjunctiva
transparent mucous membrane that convers the inner surface of eyelids and anterior surface of the eyeball
187
what is conjunctivitis
bacterial or viral infection of the conjunctiva
188
what is the lacrimal apparatus made of
lacrimal gland and ducts that drain lacrimal fluid
189
where is the lacrimal gland located
superolateral region of orbit (above eye)
190
what kind of cells produce lacrimal fluid (tears)
serous cells
191
what do tears enter as they move across the eye
puncta
192
what is the path of tears from the puncta to the nasal cavity
lacrimal punctum --> lacrimal canaliculi --> lacrimal sac --> nasolacrimal duct --> nasal cavity
193
what is the movement of the eye controlled by
6 extrinsic eye muscles
194
what kind of muscles are the extrinsic eye muscles
skeletal muscles
195
where do the extrinsic eye muscles attach
outer surface of the eyeball (sclera)
196
what is strabismus
misaligned eyes (cross-eyed)
197
what is a strabismus caused by
problem with one or more of the extrinsic eye muscles
198
what are three results of a strabismus
double vision
lack of 3D vision
amblyopia (reduced vision in weaker eye)
199
what are the three layers of the eye
fibrous tunic (outermost)
vascular tunic
sensory tunic (innermost)
200
what is the fibrous tunic an extension of
the dura mater
201
what are the functions of the fibrous tunic
protection and mechanical support
202
is the fibrous tunic vascular
no it is avascular
203
what are the two parts of the fibrous tunic
sclera and cornea
204
what is the sclera made of
dense irregular CT --> opaque (white of eye)
205
what is the cornea made of
dense regular CT --> transparent (where you see through)
206
what is the sclera covered by
conjunctiva
207
what kind of membrane is the conjunctiva
mucous membrane (stratified columnar with goblet cells)
208
what are the three parts of the vascular tunic
choroid
iris
ciliary body
209
what is the choroid
a vascular dark surface that absorbs light
210
what is the iris made of
smooth muscle
211
what does the iris do
contracts and enlarges to regulate light entry into eye ball (pupil changes size)
212
what are melanocytes
brown pigment of eye color
213
what is the difference between dark and light colored eyes
dark colored eyes have more pigment in the anterior region of the iris and light colored eyes have little to no pigment in the anterior region
214
what is the ciliary body made of
ciliary muscle
suspensory ligaments
215
what kind of muscle is the ciliary muscle
smooth muscle
216
what do the suspensory ligaments do
control the shape of the lens by releasing tension to focus light on the back of the eye
217
what do the capillaries within the suspensory ligaments produce
aqueous humor
218
what is accommdation
lens changes shape when looking at things up close
219
what happens when looking at close objects
ciliary muscle contracts
suspensory ligaments slacken
lens becomes round
*parasympathetic control*
220
what happens when looking at distant objects
ciliary muscle relaxes
suspensory ligaments become taut
lens is flattened
*sympathetic control*
221
what happens to the lens with age
it becomes less elastic (presbyopia)
222
what are the two layers of the sensory tunic
pigmented layer and neural layer
223
what is the pigmented layer of the sensory tunic
a single epithelial layer that contains melanin granules
224
what does the pigmented layer do
absorbs light and nourishes the neural layer
225
what kind of cells are contained in the neural layer
photoreceptor cells
bipolar cells
ganglion cells
226
how are the direction of light and direction of stimulus related in the eye
they are opposite of each other
227
what are photoreceptor cells activated by
light
228
what are the two types of photoreceptors
rods and cones
229
what are rods sensitive to
light
230
where are rods located
in the periphery of the retina
231
what are cones sensitive to
color
-blue light
-red light
-green light
232
do cones function best in bright or dim light
bright light
233
where are cones located
in the central part of the retina
234
what are bipolar cells activated by
rods and cones
235
what are ganglion cells activated by
bipolar cells
236
what transmits the impulse to the brain through the optic nerve
axons of ganglion cells
237
what do axons of ganglion cells form
optic nerve
238
what is the pathway of stimulation from light to the brain
photoreceptors --> bipolar cells --> ganglion cells --> optic nerve --> brain
239
what are pigments broken down by
different wavelengths of light
240
what do cells in the retina that are not involved with vision contain
melanopsin
241
where do signals from the circadian photoreception cells go to
the suprachiasmatic nucleus
242
what does the suprachiasmatic nucleus signal
signals the pineal gland to release melatonin
243
what is the visual pathway starting at the optic nerve
optic nerve --> optic chiasma --> optic tract --? thalamus --> optic radiations --> occipital lobe (primary visual cortex)
244
what is the blind spot
region of retina without rods and cones where neurons leave the eyeball
245
what is the optic disc
location where optic nerve leaves the eye
blindspot
246
where is the fovea centralis located
in the center of the macula lutea
247
where is the greatest visual acuity
fovea centralis
248
what is age-generated macular degeneration
progressive deterioration of macula lutea portion of the retina
249
where do we want light that enters the eye to hit
fovea centralis
250
what happens if the focal point does not land on the fovea centralis
the image will be blurry
251
what kind of epithelium makes up the lens
simple cuboidal epithelium
252
what is the purpose of the ciliary body
change shape to focus on fovea centralis
253
what does the lens separate
anterior segment from posterior segment
254
what does the anterior segment contain
aqueous humor
255
what does the posterior segment contain
vitreous humor
256
what are the two chambers of the anterior segment
anterior chamber and posterior chamber
257
what is the anterior chamber
portion of eye anterior to iris
258
what is the posterior chamber
portion of eye between iris and lens
259
what is aqueous humor
blood filtrate from ciliary bodies
260
what does aqueous humor do
supplies nutrients and oxygen to lens and cornea
261
what removes aqueous humor
scleral venous sinus
262
what is the pathway of aqueous humor
1. ciliary body produces aqueous humor
2. aqueous humor circulated through anterior segment of the eye
3. scleral venous sinus removes aqueous humor
263
what is a glaucoma
condition where aqueous humor is drained slower than it is produced
264
what happens to the intraocular pressure with a glaucoma
it is increased
265
what happens when intraocular pressure is inceased
damages optic nerve and can cause irreversible blindness
266
what is vitreous humor
mostly water with some collagen
267
what does vitreous humor do
supports lens and retina and helps maintain the shape of the eyeball
268
what is an emmetropic eye
normal vision where light focuses on the retina
269
what is a myopic eye
nearsighted; eye too long so image focuses in front of retina
270
what is a hyperopic eye
farsighted; eye too short so image focuses behind retina
271
what is presbyopia
lens is less elastic with age
272
what happens during lasik surgery
surface of cornea is reshaped using a laser to re-direct light properly onto retinal surface
273
what is astigmatism
abnormal shape of corneal surface causing light rays to diffract differently
274
what is the result of astigmatism
two or more focal points
275
what is a detached retina
a hole or small tear in the retina that allows vitreous humor to leak between the pigmented and neural layers of the retina
276
what is the result of a detached retina
photoreceptor cells will eventually die if neural layer is not reattached to the nourishing underlying layer
277
what is a cataract
where the lens becomes cloudy
278
why do cataracts occur
age-related damage to internal part of lens
excessive sunlight, smoking, oral steroids
279
what is the treatment for a cataract
lens replacement
280
what are the sensory functions of the ear
hearing
balance/equilibrium
281
what are the three regions of the ear
external ear
middle ear
inner ear
282
what is the role of the external ear
collects and directs sound waves
283
what is the role of the middle ear
amplifies and transmits sound waves
284
what is the role of the inner ear
location for sensory organs for hearing and equilibrium
285
what is the auricle
outer fleshy portion
286
what is the role of the auricle
protection
287
what is the auricle made of
elastic cartilage
288
what is the lobule
earlobe; no cartilage
289
what is the external acoustic meatus
the air filled canal
290
what kind of epithelium is in the acoustic meatus
stratified squamous
291
what kind of glands are in the acoustic meatus
ceruminous glands and sebaceous glands that secrete cerumen
292
what does the middle ear contain
auditory ossicles
293
what are the auditory ossicles
malleus
incus
stapes
294
what connects the middle ear with the pharynx
pharyngotympanic tube
295
what are the two skeletal muscles that help damped sound
tensor tympani (attaches to malleus)
stapedius (attaches to stapes)
296
what is the internal ear made of
the bony labyrinth and the membranous labyrinth
297
what are the parts of the bony labyrinth
semicircular canals
vestibule
cochlea
298
what is the membranous labyrinth
membrane-walled sacs and ducts that fit loosely within the bony labyrinth
299
what kind of epithelium is the membranous labyrinth made of
simple squamous
300
what are the components of the membranous labyrinth
semicircular ducts
utricle and saccule
cochlear duct
301
what is the membranous labyrinth filled with
endolymph
302
what fills the space outside of the membranous labyrinth
perilymph
303
what is the central pillar of bone in the cochlea
modiolus
304
what is located in the modiolus
the cochlear nerve
305
what does the cochlear duct have
sensory receptors for hearing
306
what is the cochlear duct filled with
endolymph
307
what are the two perilymph-filled chambers that surround the cochlear duct
scala vestibuli and scala tympani
308
what does the base of the cochlear duct sit on
the basilar membrane
309
what is another name for the organ of corti
spiral organ
310
what is contained in the spiral organ
one row of inner hair cells
three rows of outer hair cells
stereocilia at the tips of hair cells
fibers of the cochlear nerve at the base of hair cells
311
what are the stereocilia at the tips of the hair cells in the spiral organ embedded in
the tectorial membrane
312
what is the order of the vibration of sound waves in order to hear
the tympanic membrane --> ossicles vibrate --> stapes pushes on oval window --> perilymph in scala vestibuli moves --> sound waves in hearing range go through cochlear duct --> AP stimulate cochlear nerve
313
what causes the pitch of sound waves
deflection of the basilar membrane at different places
314
where do low pitch (low frequency) sounds deflect
deep into cochlea
315
where do high pitch (high frequency) sounds deflect
near entrance of cochlea
316
what are the utricle and saccule
membranous structures found within a bony vestibule
317
what is a macula
region of sensory epithelium that is contained in the utricle and saccule
318
what does the utricle respond to
acceleration in a horizontal direction (head tilt yes)
319
what does the saccule respond to
vertical movements (up/down an elevator)
320
what are the utricle and saccule filled with
endolymph
321
what are the 5 structures of the maculae
hair cells
stereocilia
supporting cells
otolith membrane
otoliths
322
what do the stereocilia do in the maculae
embedded in the otolithic membrane to initiate an impulse when bent
323
what are the supporting cells of the maculae
simple columnar epithelium that provides protection and support
324
what is the otolith membrane
disc that sits on top of sensory epithelium and shifts in response to movement (bends stereocilia)
325
what are otoliths
calcium carbonate crystals that add weight to membrane and cause a more dramatic shift
326
where are the semicircular ducts located
within the bony semcircular canals
327
what are the semicircular canals involved with
rotational acceleration of the head
328
what is the ampulla a part of
semicircular canals
329
what is inside each ampulla
crista ampullaris
330
what is contained in the crista ampullaris
receptor cells that measure rotational acceleration
331
what are the 4 main structures of the crista ampullaris
supporting cells
hair cells
stereocilia
ampullary cupula
332
what is the ampullary cupula
gelatinous mass that tips under rotational forces, bending the stereocilia
333
what is vertigo
the feeling of motion when you are not moving
334
what are some causes of vertigo
alcohol consumption
infection
otolith from maculae can become dislodged and eventually end up near crista ampullaris where they impact cupula function
335
what are the functions of the urinary system
filters blood and removes excess fluids, metabolic wastes, and ions
336
what are the macroscopic components of the urinary system
kidneys
ureters
urinary bladder
urethra
337
where are the kidneys located
behind the parietal peritoneum (retroperitoneal)
338
what bones offer some protection to the kidneys
lower ribs
339
what are the functions of the kidney
filter blood: removing metabolic wastes, toxins, and ions
regulate volume and chemical makeup of blood
340
what is the kidney surrounded by
fibrous capsule made of dense irregular CT
341
what is surrounding the fibrous capsule of the kidney
perirenal fat capsule
342
what is the outer layer of the kidney called
renal cortex
343
what are renal columns
extensions of the renal cortex into renal medulla
344
what is the inner layer of the kidney called
renal medulla
345
what is the renal medulla divided into
renal pyramids
346
what separated the renal medullas
renal columns
347
what is the tip of the renal pyramid called
papilla
348
where does urine produced in the renal pyramids drain into
minor calyx
349
where do the minor calices drain into
major calyx
350
where do the major calices drain
renal pelvis --> ureter
351
what is the main structural and functional unit of the kidney
nephron
352
what two main things is each nephron composed of
renal corpuscle
renal tubule
353
what is contained in the renal corpuscle
glomerular capsule and glomerulus (tuft of capillaries)
354
what three segments is the renal tubule divided into
proximal convoluted tubule
nephron loop (loop of henle)
distal tubule
355
what drains into the collecting duct
distal tubule
356
what happens in the collecting duct
urine is concentrated
357
what are the two different types of nephrons
cortical nephrons and juxtamedullary nephrons
358
what is characteristic of cortical nephrons
located almost entirely in cortex
(most nephorons are cortical)
359
what is characteristic of juxtamedullary nephrons
the renal corpuscle is near cortex-medullary border
nephron loop dips deeply into medulla
360
what do long nephron loops produce
concentrated urine
361
what do peritubular capillaries surround
renal tubules
362
what are peritubular capillaries designed for
absorption and secretion
363
what kind of nephrons have peritubular capillaries
cortical
364
what do vasa recta surround
tubules of juxtamedullary nephrons
365
what does the vasa recta branch from
the efferent arteriole of the nephron
366
what is the function of the vasa recta
involved with concentrating urine
367
what are the three steps of urine formation
1. filtration
2. resorption
3. secretion
368
what happens in the process of filtration
movement of fluids/wastes from blood capillaries into nephron and any particles small enough to move through do
369
what happens in the process of resorption
nutrients, water, ions recovered by the body and move from the nephron back into peritubular capillaries
370
what happens in the process of secretion
additional molecules actively and selectively moved from peritubular capillaries into the nephron to be excreted
371
where does filtration occur
renal corpuscle (made of glomerulus and surrounded by glomerular capsule)
372
what is the glomerulus
a ball of fenestrated capillaries
373
what are the two layers of the glomerular capsule
parietal layer (forms outer layer of capsule)
visceral layer (surrounds capillaries)
374
what is the visceral layer of the renal corpuscle made of
podocytes
375
how does the filtrate get into capsule space
filtration slits
376
what three things does the filtration membrane consist of
fenestrated epithelium
filtration slits
basement membrane
377
what is the basement membrane of the filtration membrane made of
fused basal laminae of epithelium and podocyte epithelium
378
what pushed small molecules through the filtration membrane
pressure within the arterial system
379
what is filtrate
the small proteins and molecules that are able to pass through the filtration membrane
380
what is the proximal convoluted tubule involved in
resorption and secretion
381
what is the proximal convoluted tubule made of
simple cuboidal epithelium
382
what is the thin segment of the descending nephron loop involved in
resorption and secretion
383
t is the thin segment of the descending nephron loop made of
simple squamous epithelium
384
what is the ascending nephron loop involved in
resorption and secretion
385
what are the walls of the ascending nephron loop made of
simple cuboidal epithelium
386
what is the distal convoluted tubule involved in
resorption and secretion
387
what are the walls of the distal convoluted tubule made of
simple cuboidal epithelium
388
what empties into one collecting duct
several nephron
389
what is the collecting duct made of
simple cuboidal epithelium
390
what are kidney stones
precipitate of urine (most commonly from calcium)
391
what happens if kidney stones block ureter
urine can collect in renal pelvis
392
what is the role of the ureter
drains urine from renal pelvis
393
ureter lined with
transitional epithelium
394
what is the urinary bladder
muscular sac that collects and stores urine
395
what are the three muscles of the urinary bladder
detrusor muscle
internal urethral sphincter
external urethral sphincter
396
what is the role of the detrusor
signals contraction when bladder is stretched (parasympathetic control)
397
what is the role of the internal urethral sphincter
signals contraction when bladder is filling (under sympathetic control)
-smooth muscle --> involuntary
398
what is the role of the external urethral sphincter
to help us control urine output
-skeletal muscle --> voluntary
399
what is the role of the urethra
drains the urinary bladder
400
what is the female urethra made of
transitional epithelium close to bladder and stratified squamous near opening of body
401
what is the role of the internal urethral sphincter in the female urethra
keeps urethra closed when urine is not passing through
402
what does the male urethra carry
urine and semen
403
what are the three different regions of the male urethra
prostatic urethra
intermediate part of urethra (membranous urethra)
spongy urethra
404
what is the main role of all primary reproductive organs
produce gametes
405
what is the male primary reproductive organ
testes (produce sperm)
406
what is the female primary reproductive organ
ovaries (produce oocytes/eggs)
407
what is the scrotum
a pouch outside the body that contains testis and epididymis
408
where is sperm produced
testis
409
where is the site for sperm storage and maturation
epididymis
410
what two muscles control the placement of the scrotum
dartos muscle and cremastor muscle
411
what does the dartos muscle do
smooth muscle that wrinkles scrotal skin to increase thickness for warmth
412
what does the cremastor muscle do
skeletal muscle that elevated testes for warmth
413
what is the pampiniform plexus
venous network that absorbs hear from arterial blood supply to testis
414
where does the testes descend through during pregnancy
inguinal canal
415
what is the testis divided into
multiple lobules
416
what does each lobule contain
one to four seminiferous tubules which produce sperm
417
what is the passageway of sperm starting at the epididymis
epididymis --> ductus deferens --> inguinal canal
418
where is the ductus deferens located
in the spermatic cord
419
hat is the spermatic cord
tube of fascia that contains blood vessels, nerves, and the ductus deferens
420
what does the prostatic urethra pass through
prostate gland
421
what does the membranous urethra pass through
the pelvic floor
422
what does the spongy urethra pass through
penile tissue
423
where does the male urethra end
external urethral orifice
424
what is the penis made of
erectile tissue
425
what is erectile tissue
smooth muscle and connective tissue surrounded by dense CT
(vascular spaces fill with blood)
426
what is the corpus cavernosum
paired, primary erectile bodies
427
what is the purpose of the corpus spongiosum
keeps urethra open during ejactulation
428
what is the vulva
external genitalia
429
what are the labia majora and labia minora
outer folds
inner folds
430
what is the clitoris
erectile tissue
431
what is released from the ovary into the pelvic cavity
an oocyte
432
what takes the oocyte from the ovary to the uterus
uterine tube
433
where does fertilization occur
in the uterine tube
434
hat lines the uterine tube
ciliated columnar epithelium
435
what are fimbriae
ciliated edges of uterine tube that create a current to draw oocyte up into tube
436
how does the egg move through the uterine tube
assistance of cilia and smooth muscle contractions
437
where does the fertilized embryo implant
uterus
438
where does embryonic development occur
uterus
439
where does the uterus sit
on top of the urinary bladder
440
what are the three regions of the uterus
fundus
body
cervix
441
t are the three layers of the uterine wall
perimetrium
myometrium
endometrium
442
what is the perimetrium of the uterus
outer layer; visceral peritoneum (serous membrane)
443
what is the myometrium of the uterus
smooth muscle layer
444
hat is the endometrium of the uterus
inner lining that changes in response to hormones
simple columnar epithelium on top of the functional and basal layers
445
what is the functional layer of the endometrium
lamina propria that thickens and sheds due to hormonal control
446
what is the basal layer of the endometrium
region of lamina propria that does not shed
447
what is the cervix
lower portion of the uterus that opens into the vagina
448
what is the vagina
external opening of the female reproductive system
449
what is the vagina lined with
stratified squamous epithelium
