Final :( Flashcards
phylogeny definition
representation of evolutionary history between groups and organisms
taxonomy
study of categorizing living things
list linnaean system in order
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
(dear king philip came over for good soup)
Linnaean system definition
a hierarchical system for naming and organizing living things
natural selection definition
organisms better adapted to an environment survive to reproduce
genetic drift
change in frequency of an existing gene due to chance (more common in smaller populations)
mutation
a change in dna to errors in replication, damage, etc.
immigration
movement of an organism into another area
gene flow
any movement of individuals and their genes from one population to another
shared derived characteristics definition
a trait unique to a clade
ancestral trait definition
a trait inherited from an ancestor of two or more clades
homoplasies definition
when two or more species develop a similar trait but don’t come from the same ancestor
how do homoplasies occur
convergent evolution or evolutionary reversal
principle of parsimony definition
the fewer evolutionary changes needed to get to a result, the more likely that phylogeny is to be true
monophyletic (clade) group definition
contains all descendants and common ancestor
paraphyletic group definition
contains common ancestor and some, but not all, descendants
polyphyletic group definition
a group that doesn’t share a common ancestor with a trait, despite sharing a trait
what are the three domains of life?
archaea, eukarya, bacteria
who was carl woese
american microbiologist who used RNA molecule to find evolutionary relationships and discover that Archaea and Eukaryotes are more closely related than bacteria
what are the 5 kingdoms
animalia, plantae, fungi, bacteria, archaea
are prokaryotes unicellular or multicellular
unicellular
are eukaryotes unicellular or multicellular
either
what is prokaryotes DNA like
circular DNA
what is eukaryotes DNA like
stored in chromosomes
how do eukaryotes reproduce
sexually, asexually, or both
how do prokaryotes reproduce
asexually
horizontal gene transfer definition
movement of genetic information between two organisms
HGT - transformation definition
bacteria take up DNA from environment and incorporate it into their genome
HGT - conjunction definition
DNA is transferred between bacteria through direct contact
HGT - transduction definition
Transfer of DNA between bacteria through a virus
cyanobacteria metabolism
photoautotrophic
what is the ancestor of chloroplasts
cyanobacteria
what forms biological soil crusts
cyanobacteria, fungi, lichens, algae
what is a biological soil crust
assembly of living organisms on rocks or soil
what are stromatolites
layers of cyanobacteria growing on top of each other (usually in shallow water)
what is a thermophile
archaea living in extreme heat
what is a halophile
archaea living in extreme salt
what is archaea lipid membrane made of
isoprenoids (ether bond: stronger bent chain)
which domain primarily produces methane
archaea
vertical gene transmission definition
gene transmission from parents to offspring
what is a protist
common ancestor of all eukaryotes, eukaryotes that aren’t plants or animals, unicellular, free-living organisims
how was the endoplasmic reticulum thought to be formed
infolding of plasma membranes
which domain is plasma membranes most similar to
bacteria
which domain are eukaryotes most closely related to
archaea
how was mitochondria formed
engulfment and endosymbiosis of prokaryote
how many membranes do mitochondria have
2, one from engulfment, one from original prokaryote
how do mitochondria divide
similar to binary fission
which organelles have their own genomes
mitochondria and chloroplasts
where do protists usually live
aquatic environments
how do protists reproduce
asexual or sexual reproduction
what is a diatom
single-celled algae, SAR, 40% of ocean primary production
what is a diatom’s cell wall made of
silica
what classifies a diatom
single-celled, protist, eukaryote
dinoflagellates definition
unicellular protist containing 2 flagella, has characteristics of both plants and animals
life cycle of a slime mold
contains a free living stage and a formation of spores. formation of spores is often formed through aggregation or fusion
what is another name for a slime mold
social amoeba
slime mold definition
blobs of unicellular organisms not classified as plants, animals, or fungi. they form multicellular organisms when resources are scarce
heterotroph
carbon from other living things
autotroph
carbon from carbon dioxide
binary fission
asexual reproduction that produces a daughter cell that grows up
archeplastida
land plants and algae
amoebozoa
amoebas and slime molds (social)
opisthokonta
fungi and animals
fungi evolutionary relationship
most closely related to animals, eukaryotic
yeast definition
unicellular fungi
multicellular fungi
usually filamentous
plasgomy
hyphae of different mating types fuse together, forming dikaryotic cell
karyogomy
nuclei from dikaryotic cells from plasgomy fuse to form diploid cells that can divide by meiosis to form haploid cells
what are fungi cell walls made of
chitin
hyphae definition
filaments that make up multicellular fungi, 1 cell in diameter, high surface area to volume ratio
septate hyphae definition
still have cell wall between adjacent cells, cell has hole allowing for quick cytoplasm movement
aseptate or coenocytic hyphae definition
no cell wall between adjacent cells
cytoplasmic streaming
cytoplasm flows from one cell to another for quick growth
haustorium
modified hyphae to penetrate host tissue (ie. wheat stem rust)
what is fungi’s form of nutrition
heterotrophs, decomposers
fungi reproduction
asexual, sexual, or both
budding definition
asexual reproduction where new organism develops from bud of existing organisms
mycorrhizae definition
mutualistic relationship between mycelium and plant roots, plant provides sugar and fungi absorbs nutrients for plant
mycelium definition
a network of hyphae
endophyte definition
fungi that lives inside plants
lichen
mutualistic relationship between fungi and photosynthetic organism that is not a plant, often used to break down rock as primary colonizers
what are the 5 groups of eukaryotes
SAR (diatoms, dinoflagellates), archaeplastida, Amoebozoa, opisthoknta, excavata
cuticle definition
waxy coating to prevent plant from drying out
stomata definition
allows gas exchange through tissue
pigment function
help to prevent against UV damage
first land plants characteristics
didn’t have efficient vascular tissue (no true roots, leaves, stems), restricted to small size/thickness
bryophytes definition
modern non-vascular plants, paraphyletic group, gametophyte is domiant generation
3 phyla of bryophytes
liverworts, hornworts, mosses
hornwort fratures
photosynthetic sporophyte
liverwort features
asexual reproduction in gemmae cups
two types of gametangia
archegonia: female, makes eggs
antheridia: male, makes sperm
archegonia
female, makes eggs
antheridia
male, makes sperm, sperm needs water to swim to archegonia
sporangium (moss) definition
where spores are formed (meiosis)
homologous structure
structures share a common ancestor, even if the function is different
analogous structure
structures with similar function, but didn’t evolve from a common ancestor
symplesiomorphy
ancestral trait shared by two or more lineages
synapomorphy
a derived train from a common ancestor, and is present in some taxa but not others
common body forms of bacteria
rod-shaped, spherical, helical
gram-positive vs gram-negative bacteria
both have peptidoglycan membrane, but gram positive’s is thicker
primary vs secondary mycelium
primary is the original haploid form, secondary is the fused dikaryotic form
ascomycete
fungus whose spores develop within a sac
desiccation
removal of moisture
tracheids
long, tapered cells that transport water through the plants xylem
bryophytes
modern non-vascular plant (liverworts, hornworts, mosses) paraphyletic
embrophytes
all land plants
tracheophytes
vascular tissue
xylem
transport water
phloem
transport sugar and other nutrients
lycophytes
club mosses and spike mosses
pterophytes
ferns and their relatives
sori
grow on underside of fronds, is a clump of sporangia, sporangia eject spores when ready
fern gametophyte
heart shaped, independent, photosynthetic, contains antheridia and archegonia
what is the dominant generation of gymnosperms
sporophyte
what does heterosporous mean
produces microspores and megaspores
where does the female gametophyte develop
inside the ovule
what are the 4 gymnosperm phyla
conifers, cycads, ginkgos, gnetophytes
when did seed plants first appear
305-465 MYA
progymnosperm definition
extinct group of woody, spore bearing plants
shared secondary vascular tissues with modern gymnosperms
integument definition
tough outer protective layer, extra layer of sporophyte tissue hardens to produce seed coat
what is the carpel
female parts, contains stigma, style, ovule, and ovary
what is the stamen
male parts, contains anther and filament
what is in the ovule
megasporangium with diploid megaspore mother cell, where the female gametophyte develops
Forensic palynology definition
analyze pollen grains and where they come from to solve crimes
describe the megasporangium in angiosperms
-8 haploid nuclei in 7 cells
-cell closest to microphye is egg
-double fertilization
microphye definition
small opening in integument that allows sperm into ovule
double fertilization definition
in angiosperms, 2 sperm cells delivered to form diploid zygote (sperm + egg) and triploid endosperm (sperm +central cell)
endosperm definition
tissue that surrounds and nourishes the embryo, made up of triploid endosperm (sperm and central cell)
when did angiosperms first appear
about 208-145 MYA
what is a flower
modified steams bearing modified leaves for reproduction
primordium definition
organ, structure, or tissue in earliest stage of development
pedicel definition
stalk or stem that supports a single plant
receptacle definition
part of flower stalk where parts of flower are attached
what are the outer parts of a flower (attached in 4 whorls)?
sepals, petals, stamens (androecium), gynoecium
sepals definition
green, leaflike, enclose petals
petals definition
colored to attract pollinators
stamen definition
where pollen is produced
anther definition
pollen bearing, at tip of filament (stalk)
gynoecium
female part of the flower, contains one or more carpels
stigma definition
tip of carpel, pollen grains land there
ovary definition
swollen base, contains ovules, develops into a fruit
pollination definition
transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
fertilization definition
fusion of male and female gamete
what is selfing/self-fertilization
sexual reproduction, doesn’t need another plant
dioecious definition
male and female parts on separate flowers or plants to prevent selfing
apomixis definition
plant is able to make seeds asexually
traits of a monocot
parallel leaf vein, multiples of 3 flower parts
traits of a dicot
branched leaf vein, multiples of 4 or 5 flower parts
three types of plant tissue
dermal, vascular, ground
node definition
a bud and its leaf
internode definition
the space between nodes
axillary bud definition
buds on side of stem at nodes
apical bud definition
buds at tip of stem
what is a meristem
undifferentiated cells that can divide by mitosis, produces one meristematic cell and one differentiated cell
where is the apical meristme
tips of stems and roots, protected by apical bud
what are the primary meristems produced by the apical meristem
protoderm, procambium, ground meristem
what does protoderm produce
dermal tissue
what does procambium produce
vascular tissue
what does ground meristem produce
ground tissue
intercalary meristem definition
promotes growth and elongation, located at base of leaves, usually only in monocots
lateral meristems definition
produce secondary growth (vascular cambium and cork cambium)
vascular cambium definition
makes secondary vascular tissues, secondary xylem and phloem
cork cambium definition
makes secondary dermal tissue (periderm)
parts of dermal tissue
epidermis, periderm, lenticels, root hairs, trichomes, stomata
epidermis definition
outer most layer of cells covering plants, alive at maturity, usually squishy and flexible, from embryo
periderm definition
secondary tissue, protective layer on some stems and roots, hard, usually dead at maturity
lenticels definition
spongy plug between cells in periderm for gas exchange
trichomes definition
extension of epidermal cell, hair/spike on plant surface, can provide protection, trap food
root hairs definition
outgrowth of epidermal cells for absorption, in root zone of maturity
xylem definition
transports water and nutrients up plants
two types of cells in xylem for transporting water
vessels and tracheids
vessels definition
cylinder with flat ends for transporting water, dead at maturity
tracheids definition
narrow, pointed, dead cells for transporting water
phloem definition
transports sugars and organic molecules from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
sieve tube definition
conducting cells in phloem made of sieve tube members, alive, mostly empty inside, utilizes companion cell, lack nucleus at maturity
3 cell types of ground tissues
parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma
collenchyma definition
support of flexible growing organisms, alive
parenchyma definition
type of ground tissue, living, squishiest, specialized for storage and metabolism, can dedifferentiate
sclerenchyma definition
crunchiest, dead, used for cell wall, contain ligin and high cellulose content, have fibers and sclereids
fibers definition
type of sclerenchyma cell, long elongated cells that form bundles
sclereids definition
type of sclerenchyma cell, hard, found in fruit walls (stone fruit)
four zones of a root
zone of maturation, zone of elongation, zone of cell division
what does the root cap do
gravitropism, covers apical meristem
pericycle definition
layer of plant cells between phloem and endodermis, can become meristematic for branching, inside casparian strip
casparian strip definition
waxy layer in endodermis to help prevent cells from entering vascular tissue
epiphytic definition
plant uses other plant for physical support
buttress and prop roots definition
roots from a few inches out of the ground for support
pneumatophores definition
roots that come out of water for air (like a snorkel)
pith definition
tissue in vascular tissue of stems, made of soft spongy parenchyma cells, helps store and transport nutrients
cortex definition
a layer of tissue that is located between the epidermis and the vascular tissues of the stems and roots, stores carbs and other substances
heartwood definition
inner, dead part of tree for support
sapwood definition
outer, living part of tree for transport of water and minerals
lenticel
spongy opening to allow oxygen in and out of periderm
cladophyll definition
modified stem, resembles and functions as a leaf
palisade definition
layer of closely packed cells on upper epidermis of leaf, contains chlorophyll
mesophyll definition
spongy parenchyma cells in lower epidermis of leaf for gas exchange
indeterminate growth definition
plants add structures to their bodies throughout life
root function
anchors plant, absorbs water and ions
cellular structure of meristems
cluster of small cells, have dense cytoplasm and large nuclei
dermal tissue function
on external surfaces, provides protection, regulates gas exchange
ground tissue function
storage, photosynthesis, support
parenchyma cellular structure
large vacuoles, thin walls, functional nuclei, most abundant cells of primary tissues
transpiration definition
diffusion of water vapor from the plant
columella cells
function in sensing gravity, contain amyloplasts
amyloplast definition
plant plastid for storing starch
stele definition
central core of root or stem containing vascular system
phyllotaxy definition
arrangement of leaves on a stem, usually at 137.5 degrees (golden mean)
rhizome definition
modified stem, horizontal stem that grows underground close to surface
runners and stolon definition
modified stem, horizontal stems with long internodes, grows underground
tubers definition
carbohydrates accumulate at tips of rhizomes, swells to become tuber
microphyll leaf definition
small leaf with one vein branching from vascular cylinder, doesn’t extend full length of leaf
megaphylls leaf definition
large leaf with complex vascular system and many veins
stipules definition
small, leaf like appendage that grows at the base of a petiole
petiole definition
stalk that connects leaf blade to stem of plant
chlorenchyma definition
parenchyma with chloroplasts, usually close to upper epidermis
window leaves definition
modified leaf, cone-shaped leaves with transparent tips for admitting light
what are the 4 pathways that regulate flowering
light-dependent, temperature dependent, gibberellin dependent, autonomous
vernalization definition
dependence of a shoot on a period of chilling
pollen tube definition
hollow tube that develops when pollen lands on stigma, gets sperm to ovule
list the common pollinators
bees, birds, bats, butterflies, moths, other insects
what type of flowers attract bees
yellow or blue flowers
what type of flowers attract butterflies
flat flowers, long tubes
what type of flowers attract moths
white or pale flowers
what type of flowers attract bats
large, open at night, pale, lots of nectar
diffusion definition
areas of more molecules go to areas with less molecules (higher potential energy to lower potential energy)
passive transport definition
doesn’t need energy (osmosis symport, ion channel)
aquaporin definition
channel for water molecules (passive)
active transport definition
use energy to move things across membrane (proton pump, uses ATP)
plasmodesmata
gap in cell wall between cytoplasms for water movement
pressure potential numbers
0 no pressure
negative: suction
positive: squeezing
solute potential numbers
more negative: more solutes
less negative: less solutes
0: pure water
plasmolysis definition
cell membrane pulls away from the cell wall when dehydrated for a long time
turgor pressure definition
outward pressure on cell created by water
apoplastic route definition
solutes of water move between plant cells but never into the cell
simplistic route definition
water moves into a cell and moves between cells via plasmodesmata
transmembrane route definition
water moves in and out of cells or between cells
guttation definition
if root pressure is high enough, pushes water up and forces it out of cells on leaves
cohesion-tension theory
transpiration, cohesion, and adhesion to cell walls move water
cohesion definition
water molecules stick to eachother
adhesion definition
water molecules stick to walls of tracheid or xylem vessels
osmosis definition
diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration
water potential usage
predict direction of water movement, measured in megapascals (MPa)
hypotonic solution definition
solution has lower concentration of solutes than the cell
hypertonic solution definition
solution has higher concentration of solutes than the cell
pressure potential (Wp)
turgor pressure resulting from pressure against the cell wall
tonicity definition
measure of the solute concentration of a solution
solute potential (Ws) definition
amount of osmotic pressure arising from the presence of a solute or solutes in water
what are the three transport routes of roots
apoplastic, symplastic, transmembrane
what is the casparian strip made of
suberin
root pressure
caused by accumulation of ions in the roots at times when transpiration from the leaves is low or absent
cavitation definition
gas bubble expands and blocks tracheid or vessel
sap definition
carbs and other nutrient rich fluids in a plant body
auxin definition
plant hormone, responsible for elongation, organizing body plan, phototropism
cytokinins definition
plant hormone, stimulate cell division and differentiation, produced in root apical meristem
gibberellins definition
plant hormone, enhances plant growth and nutrient utilization, stem elongation
ethylene definition
plant hormone, induces fruit ripening and aids plant defenses
abscisic acid definition
plant hormone, suppresses growth and induces dormancy
abscission definition
fruit dropping
metazoa
all animals collectively
animal characteristic
eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic, most are mobile, no cell walls, most reproduce sexually
chanophlagellets
closest relative to animals, protists, unicellular or colonial species
porifera animal
sponges, basal clade of animals
porifera characteristics
most primative
no true tissues of organs
no symmetry
sexual or asexual reproduction
mobile in larval form
sessile (attached) in adult form
parazoa
contains porifera, simplest group of metazoa
eumetazoa
all animals that arent sponges
characteristics of eumetazoa
true tissues, symmetry
which groups have radial symmetry
cnidarians and ctenophores
which groups are diploblastic
cnidarians and ctenophores
cnidarian animals
jellyfish, corals, hydrozoans, sea anemones
which animals are ctenophores
comb jellies
diploblastic
two tissue layers
-endoderm: gut lining
-ectoderm: outer covering
medusa body form
mobile, usually mouth down, in cnidarian
polyp body form
sessile, usually mouth up, in cnidarian
cnidarian feeding
extracellular digestion, release enzymes to digest prey in gastrovascular cavity, absorb nutrients
nematocytes
stinging cells in cnidarians on tenticles (shoot harpone out of)
chanocytes
flagellated cells that move water in sponges
osculum
large opening in sponge through which water is expelled
amebocytes
a mobile cell in invertebrates that clean up waste and distribute food
ostia
pores in sponges that water moves through
classes of arthropoda
chelicerata, crustacea, hexapoda, myriapoda
characteristics of arthropoda
segmented, exoskeleton, jointed appendages
segmentation in arthropoda
may have tagmata: head, thorax, abdomen
exoskeleton in arthropoda
made of chitin and protein, shed through ecdysis
which animals are chelicerata
spiders, ticks, scorpions, mites, horseshoe crab
chelicerata characteristics
-body in 2 tagmata
-6 pairs of appendages (chelicerae, 4 pairs of walking legs)
opisthosoma
rear end in arthropod, specifically chelicerae, often unsegmented and contains reproductive organs
pedipalps
pair of appendages for sensing, feeding, mating, located in front of the first pair of legs
crustacea animals
crabs, lobsters, crayfish, pill bugs
crustacea characteristics
- 3 tagmata, often cephalothorax
- 2 pairs of antennae, 3 pairs chewing appendages, lots of legs
- gas exchange through gills or across cuticle
- nauplius larvae
hexapoda animals
insects
hexapoda characteristics
- 6 jointed legs
- three body tagmata
- antennae
- exoskeleton
myriapoda animals
centipedes and millipedes
centipedes characteristics
two legs per segment, carnivorous
millipede characteristics
4 legs per segment, herbivores
ecdysozoans
contains arthropods and nematodes, molting skin
which phylum are deuterostomes
echinodermata and chordata
deuterostomes characteristics
-coelomates
-anus develops first
coelom definition
fluid filled body cavity (gas in vertebrates)
echinodermata animals
sea stars, urchins, sand dollars, sea cucumbers
echinodermata characteristics
-endoskeleton of calcium carbonate ossicles
-marine
-bilateral symmetry in larvae
-tube feet
-water vascular system
water vascular system
hydraulic system for movement and other functions in echinodermata
chordata animals
urchordata, cephalochordata, vertebrate
chordata characteristics
-hollow dorsal nerve cord
-notochord
-pharyngeal slits
-postanal tail
chordate subphyla
urochordate, cephalochordate, vertebrate
urochordate animals
sea squirts, tunicate
urochordate characteristics
have all 4 features as larvae, pharyngeal slits as adults
cephalochordate animals
lancelets
cephalochordate/lancelets characteristics
embed in sediment, filter feeders
vertebrate characteristics
-vertebral column (replaces notochord, encloses dorsal nerve cord)
-endoskeleton
-head/skull
what were the earliest vertebrates
fish
fish characteristics
-vertebral column
-jaws and paired appendages
-internal gills
-single loop blood circulation
-nutritional deficiencies
which fish lack jaws
hagfish and lampreys
how did jaws evolve
from anterior gill arches
chondrichthyes animals
sharks, rays, skates
lateral line system
line of mechanosensory receptors, in sharks and bony fishes
what are the groups of bony fish
ray finned fish and lobe finned fish
what are the lobe finned fish
2 species of coelacanth, lungfishes
swim bladder
regulate buoyancy by secreting gasses, in bony fish
operculum
covers gills, helps to control water movement even when fish is stationary
tetrapod characteristics
4 limbs
groups of tetrapods
amphibians, amniotes
amphibian characteristics
-legs
-lungs and/or cutaneous respiration
-pulmonary veins
-3 chambered heart, double circulation
groups of amphibians
anura, caudata, apoda
anura animals
frogs and toads
anura characteristics
-no tails
-legs modified for jumping
-most lay eggs in water
-tadpole: swimming larval form
caudata animals
salamanders
caudata characteristics
lay eggs in water, larvae similar to adults, predators in both life stages
apoda animals
caecilians
apoda characteristics
-tropical, burrowing amphibians
-legless
-tiny eyes and jaws with teeth
-internal fertiliation
amniotes characteristics
-water proof amniotic egg
-dry skin
-thoracic breathing
amniote groups
reptiles, aves, mammals
anapsids
0 hole behind eye (turtle)
synapsids
1 hole behind eye (mammals)
diapsids
2 holes behind eye (reptiles, birds)
reptile characteristics
-double loop circulation
-ventricle partially divided
groups of reptiles
chelonia, lepidosauria, crocodilians
chelonia animals
turtles and tortices
lepidosauria animals
squamata (lizards and snakes)
Rhynchocephalia (tuataras)
crocodilian animals
alligators, crocodiles, caimans
aves characteristics
birds
-amniotic egg
-scales on legs
-no teeth
-flight adaptations
what are some flight adaptations of birds
no urinary bladder, wings and feathers, thin hollow bones, efficient respiration and circulation, rapid metabolism, endothermic
characteristics of mammals
-have hair
-produce milk
-endothermic
-4 chambered heart
groups of mammals
monotremes, viviparous (marsupials and placental)
monotremes animals
1 platypus species, 4 echidnas species
monotreme characteristics
lay eggs, single opening (cloaca), lack well developed nipples
viviparous characteristics
nipples, live birth, placents
characteristics of primates
binocular vision
grasping hands
group of mammals
anthropoid animals
monkeys, apes, humans
hominids animals
apes and humans
bilateria characteristics
bilateral symmetry triploblastic
which groups are protostomes
lophotrochozoans and ectozoans
characteristics of protostomes
blastopore forms mouth first, spiral cleavage, determinant early development
characteristics of deuterostomes
forms anus first, radial cleavage, indeterminate early development, coelomates
which groups are lophotrochozoans
platyhelminthes, bryoza, brachiopoda, mollusca, annelida
which animals are platyhelminthes
flatworms
trochophore
free swimming larvae in mollusca and annelids
groups of molluscs
gastropods, cephalopods, bivalves
radula
scraping, tonguelike tooth in molluscs
molluscs characteristics
head foot, mantle, visceral mass, small coelom
annelids characteristics
marine, trochophore, some cephalization, ventral nerve cord, closed circulatory system
annelids animals
leaches, bloodworms, earthworms
ectozoans groups
arthropods and nematodes
ectozoans characteristics
molting animals
hierarchical organization of vertebrate
cells, tissues, organs, organ systems
tissue types in vertebrates
epithelial, nerve, connective, muscle
what does the ectoderm form in vertebrates
skin, nervous system, sense organs
what does endoderm form in vertebrates
digestive and respiratory tract lining, liver, pancreas, thymus, thyroid
what does mesoderm form in vertebrates
skeleton, muscles, blood vessels, heart, etc
epithelial tissue functions
secretion, absorption, transport, protection
squamous epithelial cell
flattened
cuboidal epithelial cell
cube shaped
columnar epithelial cell
column shaped
stratified epithelial layer
multiple layers
pseudostratified epithelial layer
columnar, all attached to basement but cells are different types
simple squamous function
diffusion, filtration, permeable (lungs, blood vessels)
stratified squamous function
protection (inside of mouth, esophagus, cervix)
cuboidal cell function
usually simple but can be stratified, secretion and absorption (simple: lines kidney tubules, small ducts of glands, Stratified: linings of sweat and mammary glands)
columnar function
absorption, secretion, protection (simple: digestive system, pseudostratified: respiratory passages)
how are glands formed
invaginations of epithelium
exocrine glands function
duct to the outside, secretions end up on surface of body or within tubes
endocrine glands function
no duct to outside, secretions to capillaries and circulated by the blood
cross-bridge cycle
- start with myosin head in resting position (ATP attached to head)
- break ATP molecule, myosin head is energized
- myosin head binds to actin, forms cross bridge
- myosin releases ADP and P making myosin pull on actin (power stroke)
- new ATP molecule binds to myosin head and causes it to release the actin
tropomyosin and troponin function
calcium binds, inhibits cross-bridge formation
motor neuron function
release acetylcholine, stimulates the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium inside the cell
3 types of neurons
sensory, interneurons, motor neurons
sensory neurons
peripheral nervous system, input neurons
interneurons
connect sensory and motor neurons, peripheral nervous system
motor neurons
output neurons, peripheral nervous system
resting membrane potential
-70 mv
how do channels open across membrane
sodium channels open first, potassium open second
action potential pumps
move against gradient
action potential leakage channels
slow drip
voltage-gated channels
open and close based on charge
neuroglia/glial cells
support functions for nerve cells
parts of a neuron cell
cell body (nucleus), dendrite (electrical impulse towards cell body), axon (electrical impulse away from cell)
peripheral nervous system
transmits signals to CNS
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
types of connective tissue
connective tissue proper, special connective tissue
loose connective tissue proper
lots of fluid ground substance, relatively few fibers with space between them, squishy and gelatinous
dense connective tissue proper
lots of collagen fibers in the matrix
regular dense connective tissue
collagen lined up in parallel (tendons and ligament)
irregular connective tissue
collagen oriented in different ways
special connective tissue
cartilage, blood, bone
cartilage
matrix contains collagen and chondroitin (protein)
blood
living cells are red/white cells, matrix is plasma
bone
ground substance hardened w calcium phosphate crystals
matrix
fluid with network of protein fibers (usually collagen), in connective tissue
muscle tissue types
smooth, cardiac, skeletal
smooth muscle tissue
used for involuntary movements
skeletal muscle tissue
striated, voluntary movement
cardiac muscle tissue
striated, heart
sliding filament mechanism
filaments stay the same length, thick pull thin, how muscles contract
do prokaryotes have a nucleus
no
do eukaryotes have a nucleus
yes
