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BIO 202 > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is the Normal Flora?

A

microbes that are normally resident in/on the human body
*bacteria and fungi predominate

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2
Q

What are the properties of antigens?

A

non-self
foreign
makes Igs vs them
B and T cells recognize them

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3
Q

What do antigens cause?

A

activates immune response

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4
Q

What types of molecules are antigens?

A

polypeptides (STRONGEST) T cells can respond to them when presented to MHC 1 proteins, some carbs can be (O antigen), some nucleic acids

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5
Q

What cell(s) stimulate a T helper cell?

A

threshold # of antigen has to be presented
T cell receptor has to bind to presented antigen
CD4 binds to macrophage

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6
Q

What cell(s) stimulate a B cell?

A

an activated Th cell that has been activated by an APC

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7
Q

What cell(s) stimulate a Cytotoxic T cell?

A

viral infected cells, cancer cells, and cells from other animals and humans

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8
Q

What are the Basic Immune Functions?

A

Innate (Non-specific) and Adaptive Defenses (Specific)

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9
Q

What is the 1st Line of your Immune Defense?

A

Non-Specific/Innate BARRIERS
-skin
-secretions
-bacteria
ALL ON SURFACE AND MUCUS

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10
Q

What is the 2nd Line of your Immune Defense?

A

Non-Specific/Innate RESPONSES
-phagocytic cells
-Inflammation
-Fever
-Proteins: interferon, complement

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11
Q

What is the 3rd Line of your Immune Defense?

A

Specific/Adaptive RESPONSES vs ANTIGENS
-Cell-Mediated response (T cells secrete cytokines or cytotoxins)
-Humoral response (B cells make antibodies

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12
Q

What is a Prokaryote Cell Structure?

A

-Have DNA
-Have a Plamsa Membrane
-Have Cytoplasm
-unicellular
-Domains= bacteria, archaea

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13
Q

What is a Eukaryote Structure?

A

-Have DNA
-Have a Plasma Membrane
-Have Cytoplasm
-unicellular/multicellular
-Domain= eukarya

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14
Q

What organisms are an example of a prokaryote?

A

bacteria and archaea (domain)

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15
Q

What organisms are an example of a eukaryote?

A

-Fungi
-Yeasts (single celled)
-Molds (multicellular)
-Protozoa (single celled)
-Helminths (worms)

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16
Q

What are cell walls?

A

-membrane support
-resistance to osmotic pressure
-gives cell shape

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17
Q

What is the composition of a cell wall?

A

gram + = peptidoglycan and cell membrane
gram - = outer membrane, peptidoglycan and cell membrane

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18
Q

What organisms have mycolic acid in the cell wall?

A

mycobacterium

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19
Q

What organism(s) reproduce asexually by binary fission?

A

E. coli, protozoa, bacteria, eukaryotes

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20
Q

What organism(s) reproduce sexually?

A

protozoa, eukaryotes

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21
Q

How do Fungi harm host tissues?

A

harm by digesting your tissue

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22
Q

What is protozoa?

A

microbes that are too large to be phagocytized
-eukaryotic cell type
-unicellular
-no cell wall
-classified by type of movement
-does not secrete toxins
-does both asexual and sexual reproduction
-can produce cysts
-chemoheterotrophs

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23
Q

How does protozoa harm host tissues?

A

cause excessive diarrhea and cause you to become dehydrated and you die

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24
Q

What is MIC?

A

Minimum Inhibitory Concentration
-useful in determining the smallest effective dosage of a drug and in providing a comparative index against other antimicrobials

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25
Q

What is MBC?

A

Minimum Bacteria Concentration- MBC is MIC if cidal

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26
Q

How are heat labile solutions treated?

A

autoclave
gaseous sterilants- ethylene oxide

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27
Q

Why are heat labile solutions treated the way that they are?

A

proteins are denatured and nucleotides are inactivated

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28
Q

What is the treatment for steel/surgical tools? Why?

A

disinfection or autoclave

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29
Q

What is the treatment for solutions? Why?

A

filtration

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30
Q

What is the treatment for heat labile plastic devices? Why?

A

radiation, you can’t autoclave because the plastic will melt

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31
Q

What is the fermentation pathway?

A

-anaerobic (doesn’t require oxygen)
-consists of glycolysis and fermentation
-2 net ATP
-makes pyruvate
-makes reduced electron carrier and recycles it in fermentation step and converts it into an acid or alcohol

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32
Q

How does the fermentation pathway work?

A

glucose -> pyruvate -> organic acid/alcohol
(Glycolysis is the first step, fermentation is the second)

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33
Q

What step of the growth curve are microbes most susceptible to treatment?

A

log phase- most rapidly metabolizing and take the drug more effectively

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34
Q

How are surgical tools sterilized?

A

disinfection, autoclave (can do anything really)

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35
Q

How are heat labile IV solutions sterilized?

A

gaseous- ethylene oxide

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36
Q

How are plastic IV line fittings sterilized?

A

radiation and gaseous sertilants

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37
Q

What is the central dogma of biology?

A

DNA to RNA to Protein

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38
Q

What is gene expression?

A

the process by which a gene gets turned on in a cell to make RNA and proteins

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39
Q

How is gene expression regulated?

A

Prokaryotes: in transcription
Eukaryotes: in transcription and translation

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40
Q

What is the genetic code?

A

the relationship between mRNA codons and amino acids

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41
Q

What is spontaneous mutation? (How do they happen and what is their outcome?)

A

involve…
replication
randomly
rare

42
Q

What is a point mutation? (How do they happen and what is their outcome?)

A

-One DNA base is substituted for another
-1 codon is affected

43
Q

What is a silent mutation? (How do they happen and what is their outcome?)

A

-same/similar amino acid
-no phenotype change

44
Q

What is a missense mutation? (How do they happen and what is their outcome?)

A

-different amino acid
-altered phenotype
*DON’T affect overall shape and function of the protein

45
Q

What is a nonsense mutation? (How do they happen and what is their outcome?)

A

-premature stop codons
-non functional protein (a protein that terminates or ends its translation earlier than expected)

46
Q

What is a frameshift mutation? (How do they happen and what is their outcome?)

A

-DNA bases are removed/added that are not in multiples of 3, which disrupts the triplet reading of a DNA sequence
-Outcomes: codon reading frame is thrown off & non-functional proteins usually result (MORE THAN ONE CODON AFFECTED)

47
Q

What are insertions? (How do they happen and what is their outcome?)

A

Involves the addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs into a segment of DNA
-Occurs from an error during DNA replication
-Can either result in no change OR can lead to a pathogenic variant associated with a genetic disease

48
Q

What are deletions? (How do they happen and what is their outcome?)

A

-Occurs when part of the DNA is not copied during replication
-Involves the loss of any number of nucleotides
-cause for many genetic diseases such as cystic fibrosis

49
Q

What are the 4 targets for antibiotic therapy?

A
  • cell wall: peptidoglycan, chitin (in fungi) LEAST SIDE EFFECTS
    -protein synthesis (70s Ribosome complex)
    -nucleic acid: DNA/RNA synthesis
    -cell membrane: structure, ergosterol (in fungi) GREATEST SIDE EFFECTS=
50
Q

What are the 4 ways that microbes become antibiotic resistant

A

-Inactivation of the drug by enzymes
-Alteration or loss of drug target
-Decreased entry of drug into cell (altered membrane transport)
-Rapid efflux of the drug
*Drug resistance can also be due to genotype alteration

51
Q

What is the antibiotic target for bacteria?

A

cell membrane

52
Q

What is the antibiotic target for fungi?

A

cell membrane

53
Q

What is the antibiotic target for viruses?

A

cell membrane

54
Q

What are antibiotics for endospores?

A

there are none
they can be treated with an autoclave
not metabolically active, constantly in lag phase

55
Q

What are B lactam antibiotics?

A

all penicillin’s, all semi-synthetic penicillins, cephalosporins

56
Q

What are B lactamases? (drug with lactam in it)

A

type of enzyme that is in some antibiotics

57
Q

How do B lactams and B lactamases relate to one another?

A

B-lacatamase is an enzyme that bacteria produces to disable beta-lactam antibiotics

58
Q

What is a non-B lactam cell wall-targeting antibiotic?

A

vancomycin (has a resistance to B lactamase) and caspofungal walls

59
Q

What is the barrier against disinfectants and antibiotics

A

cell membrane

60
Q

What is the reason for taking multiple antibiotics/antimicrobial drugs at the same time?

A

-prediagnostic treatment
-treatment of mixed infections
-synergostic effects
-decrease the occurrence of antibiotic resistance

61
Q

What is vertical gene transfer? (methods and significance)

A

Acquiring genes from parent organisms during reproduction

62
Q

What is horizontal gene transfer? (methods and significance)

A

any transfer of DNA that results in organisms acquiring new genes that did not come directly from parent organisms

63
Q

What are the scenarios for drug resistance?

A

Conjugation (and plasmids), Transformation, Transduction (and Transposition)

64
Q

What is conjugation?

A

Direct cell-cell transfer of bacterial DNA mediated by plasmids (most efficient mode of horizontal gene transfer)

65
Q

What is Transformation?

A

the transfer of genetic material contained in “naked” DNA fragments from a donor cell to a competent recipient cell

66
Q

What is Transduction?

A

the transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another by means of a bacteriophage vector

67
Q

What is a transposon?

A

a DNA segment with an insertion sequence at each end

68
Q

What is a naked virus and how is it transmitted?

A

transmitted by fecal-oral, more durable

69
Q

What is an enveloped virus and how is it transmitted?

A

transmitted by contact, more fragile- made by phospholipid bilayer, easily broken

70
Q

What is viral antigenicity?

A

group antigens vs type specific antigens

71
Q

What are group antigens?

A

-capsid distinguishes Groups A,B,C
-Antibody vs capsid does NOT neutralize virus

72
Q

What are type specific antigens?

A

-H and N proteins
-Antibody vs H neutralizes virus

73
Q

What is Antigenic Shift?

A

-occurs in H and N
-MAJOR changes in antigens
-Associated with Group A
-Flu’s segmented genome can re-assort
-Re-assort new H’s or new combos of H and N
-animal flu viruses provide new segments

74
Q

What is Antigenic Drift?

A

-occurs in H and N
-MINOR change in antigens
-Associated with Group B
-mutations

75
Q

What causes antigenic shift and what is the significance of it?

A

-occurs if a flu virus from an animal population gains the ability to infect humans
-can result in a new Flu A subtype infecting people for the first time

76
Q

What causes antigenic drift and what is the significance of it?

A

-caused by point mutations
Influenza A virus drift variants result from the positive selection of spontaneously arising mutants by neutralizing antibodies
-antigenic properties are different enough that the body’s immune system will have a harder time recognizing and fighting against the virus

77
Q

What is the danger if antigenic shift occurs?

A

A pandemic may occur if…
-efficient & sustained human-human transmission
-widespread mobility & mortality worldwide
-high proportion of deaths among young adults

78
Q

What is the difference in structure between a prokaryote and a eukaryote?

A

Eukaryotes are membrane-bound organelles w/ a complex structure, while Prokaryotes are not membrane bound organelles and have a simple structure

79
Q

What are the specializations of structure in a prokaryote cell?

A

-lacking a nuclear membrane
-single circular chromosome for DNA
-lacking histones
-70s ribosomes
- peptidoglycan cell wall
-binary fission
-asexual reproduction

80
Q

What are the specializations of structure in a eukaryote cell?

A
  • have a nuclear membrane
    -paired linear chromosomes for DNA
    -histones are present
    -80s ribosomes
    -cellulose/chitin/ none cell wall
    -mitosis/meiosis
    -sexual and/or asexual reproduction
81
Q

What is dangerous to the normal flora?

A

opportunistic/ nosocomial infections

82
Q

What does the normal flora do?

A

-helps prevent growth of other microbes
-produces growth factors for the host
-The “Human Microbiome”

83
Q

What is sterilization?

A

removal of ALL microbial life forms

84
Q

What is disinfection?

A

removal of PATHOGENS (from inanimate objects)

85
Q

What is sanitization?

A

Reducing the microbial counts to meet health codes

86
Q

What is ELISA?

A

-serological test: using antibodies to identify an unknown critter
-Direct vs Indirect
-Direct looking for antigen
-Indirect looking for antibodies vs antigen

87
Q

What are some targets of protozoan infections?

A

-intestinal tract
-urogenital tract
-blood
-other tissues

88
Q

True or False:
A protozoa is vegetative when in its feeding form

A

True

89
Q

True or False:
A protozoa is a cyst when resting

A

True

90
Q

What is tRNA

A

Transfer RNA
-connects amino acids with another type of RNA during translation

91
Q

What is transcription?

A

mRNA synthesis; the process where a strand of RNA is produced against a DNA template

92
Q

How can mutations be induced?

A

Induced during replication by….
-chemicals
-radiation (ionizing/non-ionizing)
-some viruses

93
Q

What do cytokines regulate?

A

-immune cell differentiation
-proliferation
-effector functions

94
Q

What do alpha and beta interferons do?

A

promotes antiviral proteins in non-infected cells

95
Q

What does Gamma Interferon do?

A

(by Th1) activates macrophages

96
Q

What does IL-1 do?

A

(secreted by macrophages)
-activates T helper cells
-promotes fever and inflammation
-APC cytokine
*If excessively secreted, can lead to shock

97
Q

What does IL-2 do?

A

(secreted by Th1)
-promotes Th and Tc growth
-stimulates T cells

98
Q

What does IL-4 and IL-5 do?

A

-promote B cell differentiation and proliferation
-promotes antibody (Ig) class switching
-IL-4 stimulates B cells for humoral immunity

99
Q

What does IL-6 do?

A

-promotes fever
-stimulates B and T cells

100
Q

What does IL-10 do?

A

(secreted by Th2)
-limits gamma interferon, thus Th1 cells
-suppresses macrophage MHC and functions
-anti-inflammatory

101
Q

What does IL-12 do?

A

(secreted by macrophages)
-promotes production of Th1 cells
-APC cytokine

BIO 202 (7 decks)

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