Factorsthat Can Influence An Individal In Physicla Activities Flashcards
What is personality
- involves unique characteristics of an individual
- involves consistent behavior patterns
Why is it important for psychologists to know about personality
- individuals behave in certain ways so it’s vital to understand
- better understanding can lead to a better motivation/training strategies
- performers relate to those who understand
What is a trait
- this is characteristics of a personality (trait) for example shyness, motivation, confidence
- it is to innovate us, we are born with it, we inherit it genetically
- stable disposition
- its enduring to us
- allows behavior to be predicted
- doesn’t take in account influence of the environment
an underlying, enduring predisposition to behave in a certain
way every time a situation occurs / pre-determined rather than
learned
Example of a trait
Vincent peter Jones former English footballer and actor. On movies he was furious and mad
Eyensencks trait personality theory A01 and A02
He identified 4 primary personality traits which were organized on a 2 dimensional model
Extrovert- affiliates well with other people/good leadership qualities/out going and sociable
Introvert- shy and reserved, prefers isolation
Neurotic- display extreme unpredictable emotions, high degree of stress
Stable- display predictable emotions
Eyensecnck attempted to measure these through the personality inventory epi 1964 and the personality questionnaire 1975.
It was used to determine the personality of an individual. 2 continuums presented as a cross where personality was plotted e.g. graph
A02-
For example introverts tend to like sports which require concentration, self motivation and low aorusal levels
\
Evaluation of eyensencks personality theory A03
Positives:
• If theory is correct, personality/ behaviour can be predicted
• There is some evidence that personality is evidenced by genetics/ innate e.g. aggression
The research completed by psychologists such as Eysenck and Cattell was widely criticised
but provided a framework for further study and debate.
Criticisms of the trait theories include:
• too simplistic
• they do not account for personality changing over time
• they do not fully account for environmental or situational factors
• they fail to allow for individuals actively shaping and understanding their own personality
• they are not an accurate predictor of sport preference
• they have limited value as a predictor of sporting success.
Nature v nurture
Are we born with our characteristics
Can they be learnt or changed
Trait theories believe personality is innate in our genes
Social learning theories believe we learn how to react or act
Nature
individuals are a product of the genes of their parents. A genetically inherited disposition
Nurture:
a learned patter of behaviour acquired through reinforcement, imitation of the behaviour of others and general environmental influences
Social learning theory Bandura 1977
A01
He suggested personality is developed through relationships with others. It is learnt rather the genetically determined. It is learnt by observing others who are around us.
-Imitation of others: Social learning is more likely if those being observed are significant’ or of high status.
-Personality is learned from other i.e. Regardless of our traits, our behaviour and personality can be developed based on the people around us.
-Bandura believed that PERSONALITY = MODELLING +REINFORCEMENT
A02
An inexperienced sports performer may be inspired by the positive attitude and commitment displayed in training by an experienced player. The novice copies the desirable approach of the role model and receives positive reinforcement from both coach and peers. The process of reinforcement has facilitated learning.
Adults can be shown performing awful behaviors and the children will watch. The children pick up more on the bad behaviors which show they learn though observation and imitation.
Evaluation of the social learning theory A03
Positives:
There is evidence to suggest some aspects of personality are learned
by watching and copying significant others/ role models
Criticisms of Social learning theory include:
• Limitation = doesn’t take into account genetically inherited traits
• Too simplistic as it is not likely to be just the environment that determines our
personality
• Children/ siblings/ twins brought up in the same way don’t always display
the same personality
• If the theory was true we would all have the same personality/ copy our role
models
Hollanders intereactionist theory B=F (P.E) A01 and A02
B=F (P.E)Behaviour as a function of Personality traits and Environmental conditions
Behavior is a function of personality traits and environmental conditions
• Otherwise known as Interactionist theory (Hollander):
• This can be seen as a mixture of the best bits from Trait personality theory and Social learning theory
• An individual adopts their personality according to the environment
• Behaviour is determined by the interaction of a person with his/ herenvironment
• Behaviour can not be predicted
For example, if the situational factors are strong, such as in a highly competitive match with a high extrinsic reward for success, these factors may be more influential on behaviour than personality. However, if the situational factors are not
strong, such as in a recreational game, personality is more likely to control behaviour
Interactionalist theory Hollanders layers of personality
Psychological core- is the innermost and reflects the permanent traits, includes the beliefs, values, attitudes and self concepts. These traits determine how a person behaves and their typical responses. For example if they are they are shy and timid then they will act like this in most situations.
Typical response- the usual way we respond to situations e.g. if a hockey player believes there’s never an excuse for violence then there unlikely to behave in that way
Role related behaviors- This is how we act in particular situations. For example if the afore mentioned individual was asked to captain a team or referee a match they may act boldly and assertively, despite their hesitant and timid core.
Social environments
Evaluation of Hollanders intereaction theory
Positives:
• Explains twice as much as trait personality theory and social learning theory.
More complex approach
• Offers an explanation as to why the personalities of sports performers can change
in different circumstances
• Used by many psychologists
• The coach or sports psychologist can use this dynamic approach and attempt to
identify characteristic behaviour patterns in specific situations.
For example, if a player becomes over-aroused or aggressive in the final stages of a
match if the result is close, various stress management strategies can be developed.
Drawbacks:
However, this does mean the coach must recognise that each performer is unique,
must devote time to developing an understanding of each person, and must treat
them accordingly.
Why is personality profiling vital
Personality involves consistent behavior patters so it’s important for sports psychologists to know about personality because individuals behave in certain ways, so it’s important to understand them. Better understanding can also lead to better motivational or training strategies. Performers will relate better to those that understand the,
Strengths and weaknesses of eyensencks quesitonaire
Positives
• Lots of subjects can be tested at the same time; quicker and more efficient system to use.
• Cheap and cost effective
• Data gathered is objective
(numerical result)
Negatives
• Results vary when test is repeated; results affected by mood, situation, attitudes.
• Participants may lie/ give ‘sociallyacceptable’ responses
• Misunderstand the questions
• Closed questions limit answer responses
Strengths and weaknesses of interviews
Positives
• Possible more honest response
• Less confusion of questions
• Responder able to give an open
response
Negative
• Time consuming
• Participants may lie/ give ‘socially
acceptable’ responses
• Status of interviewer may affect
answer given
Strengths and weaknesses of observation
Strengths
• See performers in their own
environment
• Individuals may behave more
naturally
Weaknesses
-Time consuming
• subjective
• Person being observed may act
differently because they know
they are being watched.
Explain the advantages and
disadvantages of using personality
profiling in sport
• Useful to monitor progress A
• Time efficient and effective A
• Questionnaires/ interviews/ observations are not reliable as people may be D
able to fix results.
• Can gain an understanding of each individual; choose the correct
coaching/ teaching style for performer to respond too A
• Provides personality strengths and weaknesses A
• Evidence is too general; personality alone can not predict behaviour D
• Research is not suitably evidenced e.g. introverts can do just as well in teamsports as extroverts D
• Put strategies in place to help athlete/ individual (anxiety etc D
What do we mean by the term personality? Why is it important for sports psychologists to know about
personality?
• Personality involves the unique characteristics of an individual.
• Personality involves consistent behaviour patterns.
• It is important for sports psychologists to know about personality because individuals behave in different
ways, so it is important to understand them.
• Better understanding can lead to better motivational or training strategies.
• Performers will relate better to those that understand them.
Eysenck identified two dimensions of personality as in figure 13.19. Describe the trait approach to personality.
What do the traits extroversion and stability mean?
3 marks from:
• The trait approach sees the personality of the performer as genetic or innate.
• Traits are the enduring characteristics of an individual.
• It is Innate to us/ we are born with it/ inherit it genetically from our parents
• It is a stable disposition (it doesn’t change)
• It is Enduring to us i.e. it stays the same throughout our lives.
• Allows behaviour to be predicted
• Does not take into account the influence of the environment or significant
others
2 marks from
• Extrovert - the sportsperson seeks social situations or is sociable.
• Stable - the performer has a level personality, and is predictable or steady
What is attitude
A predisposition (opinion held because of previous experiences) towards an attitude or object
It’s made up of beliefs, feelings and behavior
How are your attitudes formed-woods triadic model of attitude formation
Cognitive component- this is our beliefs or knowledge that are formed through past experiences and from others e.g. you know/beleive or think a spinning class is good for you
Affective element- refers to our emotional reactions towards an attitude object/whether we like or dislike something e.g. you enjoy going to spinning class and you feel good after going
Behavioural element- how we actually behave/react/respond (which may/may not reflect our cognitive belief. E.g. you go to a spinning class twice a week
Factors that affect how attitudes are formed
- parental influence
- cultural norms
- perceived need for health and exercise
- media
- education
- past experiences
- other group members/ peers
Strategies to use to change attitude
- persuasion
- emphasis positive body image
- show benefits to health
- use appropriate role models
Main methods to use to help change attitudes
- persuasive communication
- cognitive dissonance
Persuasive communication theory
This method involves the attitude being altered by persuasion
- The persuader- significant other with high status
- The message- positive to initiate the change
- The recipients- easy to change an attitude if the recipient really wishes to be changed
- The situation- the presence of other persuaders
In this the person must…
- pay attention
- understand
- accept
- retain
The message being given
The coach must…
- be expert
- be trustworthy
The message must…
- be clear
- be unambiguous
- be balanced between pros and cons
Cognitive dissonance
Dissonance is an emotional conflict
Festigner 1957 proposed that an individual’s beliefs and thoughts have a direct influence on his or her behaviors.
If these ideas or cognitions are challenged with new information then a person will experience a sense of psychological discomfort and will attempt to restore the balance of harmony.
Such a conflict of beliefs is known as dissonce
What was the aim of cognitive dissonance
The aim was to change an attitude based on the assumption that one of the components of the Triassic model can be manipulated to create dissonance
After reviewing the new information or experience the individual either then develops a new attitude or retains the existing approach
If dissonance does occur the feelings of discomfort can be dispelled by the following 3 stages…
1. Making the cognition/thought less important
2. Changing the cognition
3. Replacing the cognition
Cognitive dissonance- what if things need to be altered
To alter the cognitive component of an attitude new information can be provided
The affective component may be changed by giving a different experience which may be viewed as more positive
The behavioral component can be altered by
ensuring the skill is simplified,success is achieved and subsequently reinforced, thus causing a positive affective component of attitude.
Describe the three components of an attitude as identified in Wood’s Triadic Model.
Cognitive/ideas/cognitions/thoughts:
Performer’s thoughts about an object (1)
Affective/emotional:
Performer’s feelings/emotional responses towards an object (1)
Behavioural/actions:
How a performer acts when faced with an object (1)
Define cognitive dissonance (Festinger).
Tension resulting from having contradictory thoughts or beliefs about something or someone.
What is arousal
A general physiological and psychological activation of the organism (person) that varies on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement. Gould and Krane 1992. A01
What are the 2 main theories that explain the relationship between arousal levels and performance
Drive theory
Inverted U theory A02
Drive theory (hull 1943)
This is the first theory and it is a linear relationship between performance and arousal. As arousal increases so does performance as shown in the diagram below.
An increase in arousal causes the dominant habit to occur more. The dominant response is more likely as arousal increase. The skill level of performance depends on how well the skills have been learned.
The drive theory can be summarized as- performance= arousal (habit) x skill level (habit strength) A01
Drive theory A02
According to the drive theory
Autonomous stage= well learned dominance response perform better as arousal levels increase/at high arousal
Cognitive stage= unskillful DR performs worse with high levels of arousal/ better with low levels of arousal
Practical example- if the drive theory had some truth then the autonomous footballers should have won the challenge and made very few mistakes because the dominant response is to be able to shoot a ball correctly and confidently.
E.g. a novice rounders player who is trying to impress his friends missed the ball
An expert dancer scores performs the best they ever have in their a level pre assessment
Drive theory evaluation A03
Pros
- simple to understand, clearly shows the relationship between arousal and performance
- this theory is made more reliable/accurate by relating arousal to dominant response
- for some performers/automous stage of learning/experts it is an accurate representation of what happens when arousal increases
- its more likely to be accurate for certain types of skills such as gross e.g. Rugby tackles
- it helps teachers and coaches understand the effect of arousal on performance
Cons
- quality of performance doesn’t always increase as levels of arousal increase
- too simplistic view of the relationship between arousal and performance
- doesn’t consider individual differences/ levels of performer/type of skill. Doesn’t always explain the reasons why school performers in the autonomous phase of learning fail to complete skills in situations of high arousal.
-Doesn’t acknowledge drive reduction/idea the performer may lose motivation/perceive task to be fulfilled so drive can be reduced
-doesn’t explain why some people perform well at lower arousal
Inverted U theory hypothesis A01
It explains the differences depend on the type of activity , personality, and stages of learning This theory states that as the athletes arousal level increases, so will their performance. this rise will continue to an optimum point where performance will be at a very high-level.
However, if arousal continues to rise beyond this optimal point performance will deteriorate
Small amount of anxiety suggests the performer is casualor inattentive therefore unlikely to perform at his or her best
High anxiety or arousal can cause overexcitement or disruption of concentration or attention or control
Inverted U thoery A02
Gross skills require high optimum levels of arousal E.G clean and jerk.
Fine skills require a lower optimum level of arousal E.G snooker shot
Too much or too little arousal interferes with coordination, decision-making, and performance
Inverted U theory- personality A01 and 2
It says extroverts perform better when under situations of high levels of arousal and it says introverts perform better under situations of lower levels of arousal
Inverted U theory- stages of learning A01 and 2
High arousal in beginners (cognitive) will impair performance. The dominant response is incorrect therefore performance deteriorates.
Elite (autonomous) performer with a well learned task, dominant response will be correct so high arousal will not impair performance, it will help improve it
The cognitive stage requires low levels of arousal due to the inability to attend to many cues, so they are unable to chunk information, the increased arousal causes a narrow attention band which means they will miss vital cues.
The autonomous stage requires high levels of arousal because they can chunk in information together and run a whole motor program as one piece of information. This frees attention channels, so the attention band needs high arousal to narrow and block out irrelevant cues.
Inverted U Theory evaluation A03
PROS
-it’s seen to be more realistic than drive theory
- It’s true there is a certain optimal point of arousal/that above or below optimal arousal performance quality is lower
- It’s simple and easy to understand and apply
-It helps teachers and coaches understand the effect of arousal on performance
-the optimal point of arousal can shift higher or lower different personalities/skill level all types of skills
Cons
-It’s too simple/limited view of the relationship between arousal and performance
-it could be said to be too even a distribution, performance can drastically drop if aroused
-the two models do not distinguish between the effects of somatic and cognitive anxiety. The catastrophe theory suggests an athlete is affected differently by each type of anxiety and performance does not simply drop off sometimes it can dramatically decline.
What is trait anxiety
An acquired disposition that predisposes a person to perceive a wide range of objectively nondangerous circumstances as threatening and to respond to these with disproportionate state anxiety levels.
What is state anxiety
Moment-to-moment changes in feelings of nervousness, worry, and apprehension associated with arousal of the body.
What is cognitive state anxiety
Moment-to-moment changes in worries and negative thoughts.
What is somatic state anxiety
Moment-to-moment changes in perceived physiological arousal.
Definition and feelings of stress
A feeling that there is an imbalance between the demands of a situation and the individual’s
capability to meet the demands when success is important
Changes in concentration
Changes in Anxiety
Changes in Arousal
Definition and feelings of anxiety
Negative emotional state, caused when the situation is threatening
Apprehension, worry, nervousness
Definition and feelings of arousal
Physiological and psychological activation of a person. Or a state of alertness that can be placed on a continuum from very low levels (deep sleep) to extremely high levels (frenzy)
Excitement, increased heart rate, increased ventilation rate
Discuss the effects of arousal and anxiety on an athlete during competition and the use of psychological skills training methods to improve their performance.
A01-Arousal is your level of excitement and readiness to perform.Anxiety is a negative aspect of stress, worry over the possibility of failure.
Types of anxiety
State- situational specific anxiety (A02 e.g.) dancer rehearsing in a closed studio experience lower levels of anxiety compared too performing in a larger audience
Trade- personality related to anxiety (A02 e.g.) some people have a higher level of anxiety as part of their personality
A02
In general for
- cognitive performers/learners- an increase in both anxiety and arousal leads to inconsistent performance, reducing performance with errors
-autonomous performers/learners- optimum amount of anxiety and arousal leads to dominant and successful performance
Dimensions of anxiety-
- cognitive- mental impairment of performance. Symptoms- worry, apprehension, doubt, incorrect decision making, confusion, feelings of unable to perform
-somatic- physiological effects. Symptoms- poor muscle control, sweating, high heart rate, shaking and nausea.
-behavioral-involving the actions and behaviors a performer exhibits as a result of anxiety
Refer to the 3 main theories that explain the relationship between arousal levels and performance
1. Drive theory
2. Inverted U theory
3. Catastrophe theory
Catastrophe theory
This theory predicts a rapid decline in performance resulting from combination of high cognitive anxiety and increasing somatic anxiety
It was devised by hardy and frazey 1987
It’s a development of the inverted U theory but involves a faster and more dramatic reduction in performance.
It’s more a model than a theory as it tries to predict human behavior rather than try and explain it.
Point A- cognitive anxiety is high and somatic anxiety is low. Performance is enhanced
Point B- cognitive anxiety is high, somatic anxiety is high. Performance can deteriorate.
Point D- performance does not return to original level immediately even though performer is trying to decrease arousal
Point C-performance is still deteriorating
What does the catastrophe theory suggest and propose
It suggests that an athlete is affected differently by each type of anxiety and that performance does not simply drop off. Sometimes the performance can dramatically decline. It proposes that when an athlete is under conditions of low cognitive anxiety the relationship between performance and somatic anxiety would follow the inverted U theory.
So if an athlete is experiencing raised heart rate and butterflies in their stomach but is not worried about how they are playing they would experience a rise in performance to an optimal point follow by a gradual drop off.
Under conditions of high cognitive anxiety the relationship between somatic anxiety and performance would rise to the optimal level but any increase in somatic anxiety would result in a catastrophic decrease in performance. Once this has occurred it’s difficult to return to the original levels of optimal performance
Describe the main effects of increasing anxiety on sports performance
-negative thoughts
-Not feeling in control
Performance decreases because of
-negative thoughts (cognitive)
-Loss of concentration (cognitive)
-Not feeling in control (cognitive)
-muscle tension (som)
What is aggression
This is an intentional behavior that involves intent to harm or cause injury to another individual often outside the rules of the game
What is assertion
This is forceful or committed play ( not aggressive) within the rules or laws of the game. Assertion involves legitimate force, although this is often accompanies with unusual amounts of energy or effort. If an opponent gets injured then this is unfortunate as it was not the aim of the athlete
Different between aggression and assertion
Aggression
- intend to harm
- outside rules
- uncontrolled
Assertion
- non violent
- within rules
- controlled
In the middle of them both is the grey area of ambiguity.
Types of aggression
Hostile- premeditated actions to cause deliberate harm
- so much anger is built upon the person e.g. mike Tyson bit a chunk out of someone’s ear
Instrumental- aggression used to achieve an aim or tactic could play e.g. if your on wing and someone’s passing you by you trip them up for you to gain an advantage
Channeled- grey area where an overlap exists between aggression and assertion e.g. rugby player attempts to tackle an opponent legally but also as physically as possible
Reactive- in response to external/internal triggers like pain or foul play e.g. reacting to an event rather than controlling it.
Why do people get aggressive
-over arousal
- under developed moral reasoning
- bracketed morality
- application to specific sporting situations
What is physiological arousal
Where anger towards another person causes an increase in arousal. This can be because the sportsperson is highly motivated
What is underdeveloped moral reasoning
Where players with low levels of moral reasoning are more likely to be aggressive
What is bracketed morality
Which there is a double standard of condoning aggressive behavior in sport but not life in general
Causes of aggression
Individual factors
- displaced aggression is where there’s an influence from outside of the sport
- frustration over poor personnel performance or having e.g a goal blocked
- personality
- to intimidate and dominate the opponent
- stress and anxiety from the pressure to win at all costs
Environmental factors
- hostile crowds
- perceived unfairness
- other players aggression leads to retaliation
- pain or being injured
- see others being aggressive and copy role models
Social factors
- game determinants
- to be accepted by a group/peer pressure
- cultural determinants/it’s expected
- rivalry often seen in local derby’s
- high expectations on the performers/pressure to win
Instinct theory (Freud 1950)A01 aggression theory
A01-Freud 1950 viewed aggression as an innate drive, a natural instinctual behavior that we are all born with. This theory states that humans are biologically determined to act aggressively to dominate those around them, a survival instinct.
It is how one may react when feeling threatened.
Instinct theory suggests that emotions cause aggressive feelings and energy buildup inside us. This energy is released by aggressive acts that release this pent up hostility which enables us to be comfortable and stable
Instinct theory A02
Activities like kick boxing and cage fighting are supposed to provide an ideal opportunity for the release of this aggressive energy or cathartic release, enabling them to be non aggressive in other situation.
Instinct theory A03
+being and suggested that some people are born with aggressive characteristics that result in them being more aggressive than others in sport and also in life in general’
Numerous psychologists have criticised the theory because
- human aggression is often not spontaneous
- aggression is often learnt and linked to culture
-cultural norms can influence the levels of acceptable aggression displayed by individuals
- levels of aggression tend to increase during sporting participation rather than decrease
-performers in sport of an aggressive nature do not tend to display similar characteristics away from the sporting environment
- no biological innate characteristics have been identified
Social learning theory A01 aggression theory
This is based on the view that our behavior is related to our experiences. It proposes that aggressive behavior is learned through observation of others and copying their actions. If reinforced the copied actions are repeated in similar situations. This is known as the vicarious experience.
If they are high status or profile-behavior will be reinforced
If they have similar characteristics like gender age or ability-the observer thinks it will not be punished or booked
If the model is live and realistic-if behavior is approved by teammates, coach or audience
Instrumental aggression is linked to the social learning theory where the performers are told to get stuck in and use aggression as tactic copy modeling
Social learning theory A02
Marty Mcsorley was an ice hockey player for the Boston Bruins in the NHL for 17 years. late in the 2000 season, he smashed his stick into his opponent Donalds head with just three seconds remaining in the game. Another man was skating with his back to him and suffered concussion as a result. Later in the same year an exact replica of the incident occurred during a youth hockey game with a 15-year-old player suffering severe concussion
year.
Social learning theory A03
+Due to the extensive media coverage of sport many players see their role models or significant others displaying acts of aggression.
+there are many examples of when behavior isn’t punished and consequently others copy their actions believing its acceptable to act in this manner
+the player may receive many forms of reinforcement which encourage behavior, from spectators, coaches, teammates and parents
+while there are negative aspects to this proposal, it should also be viewed that if players can be taught unacceptable behavior they can also be taught acceptable behavior. If this is the case it’s possible to control aorusal levels and modify behavior if the correct reinforcement is provided.
- while its clear that many aggressive actions are copied from significant others and are more likely to be repeated if reinforced, the social learning theory does have some critics.
Frustration aggression hypothesis aggression theory A01
States you have a drive to goal- need to win, there’s an obstacle, leads to frustration and aggression and this aggression can determine success and catharsis or punishment which therefore leads back towards frustration.
-It suggested that sorts performers have a drive to achieve a goal when taking part in competitions.
-Most of the time the goal is outcome related however the goal could be a process or performance goal.
- the frustration aggression implies that a performer will get frustrated if their goal is blocked and when frustration builds up this leads to a player being aggressive
- this aggressive behavior acts as a catharsis for the built up frustration thus making the player to feel better, enabling them to focus on the task at the hand which reduces the likelihood of being aggressive.
- however if the player is punished for aggression this often leads to further frustration.
Frustration aggression hypothesis aggression theory A02
The aggressive behavior acts as a catharsis for the built up frustration thus making the player feel better enabling them to focus onto the task at hand, which reduces the likelihood of being aggressive.
Drive to goal- need to win… this relates to an…outcome related goal- win a game
Process or performance goal- such as a wide receiver in American football trying to find space to receive a pass or making a set number of completed passes in a game
Obstacle to a goal- an opponent tries to prevent the wider receiver from making the catches, being an obstruction that gets in the way of the receiver achieving there goal.
Frustration- aggression implies a performer will get frustrated if their goal is blocked and when frustration builds up. E.g. maybe punching or elbowing the defender during a play.
However if the player is punished for aggression this often leads to further frustration.
Aggressive-Cue Hypotheses (Berkowitz) aggression theory A01
-Due to the criticisms of the previous theories berkowitz 1969 developed the aggressive cue theory of aggression
- he proposed that frustration led to increased arousal and this in turn increased the likelihood of aggression
- however aggression only occurred if ‘social learning cues’ were present. For example the die receiver may be being continually hit hard in tackles and this would increase arousal. The player may lash out against the opponent but only if his coach has previously tolerated this behavior. However if the player has learned that they will be punished by his coaches for acting aggressively the likelihood of aggression is reduced
Aggressive-Cue Hypotheses (Berkowitz) aggression theory A02
Certain football fixtures seem to be associated with aggressive acts more than others. Local derbies in football result in red and yellow cards on the pitch and spectator violence off it. Frustration and aorusall combined with fans encouraging players to get stuck in means aggressive acts are more frequently witnessed
Other aggressive cues involve…
- playing against players who have a reputation for being unfair or dirty
- playing against opponents where there has been a history of unsavory incidences (they were aggressive or had celebrated a previous win excessively.
Aggressive-Cue Hypotheses (Berkowitz) aggression theory A03
+ if the theory is correct it may explain why some players are able to maintain their composure and control their aorusal levels and not act aggressively.
+ the theory is a more valuable explanation of aggression than earlier theories. Rather that imply being a innate response to an external stimulus, aggression is linked to learning and will occur only when suitable environmental cues are present
Motivation
The will or desire to learn or achieve success.
- intrinsic- within the performer produces internal satisfaction
- extrinsic- relies on external awards
What are the 2 types of motivation
-intrinsic
- extrinsic
Intrinsic motivation
This is usually seen as more effective as it gives the performers a sense of control over performance. It’s seen as spontaneous motivation but this drive is never fully satisfied often leaving the individual to persist in the desire to satisfy this drive.
This means intrinsic motivation can be external however the coach must have detailed knowledge of the individual to design appropriate intrinsic motivation which can take time so its not a quick fix if you lack motivation
Extrinsic motivation
This is seen as a good short term motivator which can produce quick improvements to motivation as there is often little knowledge of the performer needed.
However overuse of extrinsic reward can lead to a decrease in intrinsic motivation. Once the extrinsic is removed all motivation could be lost.
What is the achievement motivation theory
This is Atkinson model of achievement motivation which relates to how much dreisre and drive a performer has to persist in trying to succeed.
It can be summarized as…
Drive to succeed= fear of failure
Achievement motivation can be influenced by…
PERSONALITY - the need to achieve (NACH) and the need to avoid failure (NAF)
SITUATIONAL- probability of success and incentive value of success
Frustration aggression hypothesis aggression theory A03
- not all frustration leads to aggression
- not all aggression is caused by frustration… it can be learned
- it doesn’t account for situational factors or individual differences
NACH
The performer has a need to achieve where they seek high risk challenges and doesn’t fear failure and instead seeks for feedback
NAF
The performer has a need to avoid failure, they seek situations where success is highly probable for them, they fear failure and avoids defeat and feedback
Characteristics of NACH
Tennis players seeking to play higher ranked opponents in tournaments; boxers seeking elimination bouts; football teams playing higher level opposition in pre season matches
NACH A02
Tennis players seeking to play higher ranked opponents in tournaments; boxerscseeking elimination bouts
NAF A02
Tennis players seeking to play lower ranked opponents;football teams playing lower ranked teams in pre season matches to avoid defeat; golfers playing the same course to claim a higher handicap
Identify factors which could affect the use of motives to achieve and avoid failure in sporting situations
- player perception of probability of success
- player own ability level or the ability of the opponent
- previous experience of the task
- importance of the task or the level of competition
- level of motivation of the player
- player personality traits may predetermine which motive is used
How would you promote the need to achieve motive rather than the need to avoid failure motive
- give early success to the learner
- raise self efficacy or confidence levels
- attribute success to internal and controllable factors like agility, talent/effort, tactics
- give rewards to the learner
- promote intrinsic rewards, satisfaction of PB’S
- if failure occurs encourage it to be seen as important for eventual success
- redefine success or decrease importance of a failure if needed
- avoid comparison with others if it’s likely to lower self esteem
- show successsfuk and attainable models
- highlight success in media- with others who have achieved
- control anxiety or arousal levels
Analyse the factors that contribute to both social facilitation and social inhibition Social facilitation
This can be positive or negative.
Specially facilation is the influence of the presence of others on a performance. These others could be in the audience or performing in the same activity (coactors)
Social inhibits is known as negative and is used when deserving how increasing arousal leads to decreases in performance. This is based on the principles of drive theory and the dominant response occurring.
Who developed social facilitation and who is it
Triplett 1898 was interested in racing cyclists who go faster when racing against others.
The 1st study by Triplett turn the crank of a fishing reel stating you perform faster in groups rather than alone.
The second study discovered cyclists got better times when cycling with others rather than on their own having a positive influence
Example of social facilitation occurring
A crowd encouraging a team playing well
Example of social inhibition occurring
Crowed cheering at a team not performing well
Different types of audiences
PASSIVE OTHERS (social facilitation)
- audience
- coactors- involved in the same activity at the same time as the performer but not competing directly e.g. umpires, referees, helpers
INTEREACTIVE OTHERS
- competitors
- spectators
Factors affecting performance
- size of audience
- proximity of audience
- intentions of the audience
- skill level of the task
- personality of the performer
- type of task
Nature of the audience
1.size of the audience (A02)- the larger the audience increases the chances of inhibition and smaller audience increase the chance of facilitation (A03)
- Proximity of audience (A02)- a closer audience increases the likelihood of inhibition. An audience that is further away reduces the chances of inhibition (A03)
- Intentions of the audience (A02)- a hostile audience creates inhibition but a friendly supportive audience creates facilitation A03.
- Evaluation apprehension (A02)- Judgement of a performance can create both inhibition and facilitation depending on the factors below (A03)
- Homefield advantage (A02)- Can facilitate performance through familiarity of environment and support of crowd but can also inhibit in pressure situations like penalties (A03)
Nature of the performer
-introvert/extrovert (A02)- Intorverts suffer social inhibition in front of others whereas extroverts crave an audience and this creates facilitation (A03)
- novice/expert (A02)- novices lower skill levels break down with an audience present yet experts are able to perform with a higher level of skill in front of a crowd (A03)
- high/low anxiety (A02)- performers with high levels of anxiety are more likely to choke under audience pressure but those with low anxiety will cope
- confidence (A02)- confident performers are far better with an audience whereas low confidence performers wilt under pressure
Nature of the task
-gross/fine (A02)- tasks using large muscle groups are more likely to be done well in front of an audience e.g. athletics, swimming whereas tasks involving fine muscle groups aren’t performed as well e.g. darks, snooker (A03).
- complex/simple (A02)- complex tasks tend to breaks down under the pressure of being observed whereas simple tasks tend to be performed better (A03)
- drive theory and inverted u and dominant response (A02)- an audience creates arousal. If a skill is poorly learnt (early in the learning curve) then the incorrect response is more likely, this leads to inhibition. However if a skill is well learnt (later in the curve) then the dominant response is more likely to be correct under high levels of arousal which leads to facilitation (A03)
Facilitation and inhibition summary
Facilitation
- high arousal leads to improved performance by …
1. Highly skilled performers
2. Gross skills
3. Simple skills
4. Extrovert performer
Inhibition
-high arousal leads to reduced performance by…
1. Novices
2. Fine skills
3. Complex skills
4. Introvert performer
Drive theory/inverted U and dominant response
The audience creates arousal and if a skill is poorly learnt the incorrect response is more likely leading to inhibition. If a skill is well learnt the dominant response will likely be correct under a high level of arousal which leads to facilitation
What is meant by passive and interactive others
It’s presented on a present others diagram
Others in sports performance settings can be…
Passive- e.g. audience or coactors
Audience- those watching either as spectators at the event or at home via the different forms of media, including tv, radio or internet as passive, possibly silent but interested group
coactors-who are those performing the same task but not in direct competition, non threatening fellow performers
Interactive others- e.g. co active competitors and emoticon supporters
Co active competitive-those in direct competition with the performer
Social reinforces/emotive supporters- those with a direct influence
Presence of others= evaluation
Cottrel in 1968 proposed the model were not arousing to produce social facilitation effect. Increases in arousal were evident when performer thought the audience were judging performance. It can inherit performance when an athlete feels judged and becomes anxious.
Arousal and anxiety levels increase because of the fear of perceived judgements from others or you think others are judging you so you become anxious.
Zajoncs theory
This is the mere presence of others which creates arousal which then affects the overall performance.
If a skill is poorly learnt in the early learning curve arousal will cause an incorrect response because an incorrect response is dominant.
However if a skill is well learnt later in the learning curve arousal will cause the correct response as the correct response is seen as dominant
Look at the inverted U theory for connection between arousal and performance
Evaluation apprehension
Control 1968 proposed that the mere presence of others was not significantly arousing to produce a social facilitation effect. Increases in arousal were only evidence when the performer thought that the audience was judging or evaluating his/her performance.
Evaluation apprehension is when a performer feels they are being evaluated in some context by a crowd member, this feeling of evaluation causes arousal levels to increase. The audience is perceived as evaluating/judging performance causing anxiety thus evaluation apprehension causes arousal.
Coping strategies include
- stress management
- mental rehearsal
-Selective attention (away from evaluators)
- lowering the importance of the situation
- training with an audience present
Audience leads too…
Increase in psychological arousal, dominant performance mode, reduced performance while learning, improved performance when expert
Evaluation apprehension can inhibit performance when an athlete feels like they are being judged and become anxious, however some athletes may thrive on evaluation to help stimulate arousal levels and increase performance. This would be another facilitating effect.
The distraction effect
Distraction is an aspect of concentration or lack of concentration
- attentional focus is very important for the effective sportsperson if this is disrupted then he/she is distracted from his/her task
Audience and evaluation apprehension can act as a distraction the sportsperson needs therefore to practice in distracting circumstances and practice switching attentional focus when faced with potentially distracting circumstances
Homefield advantages
Home/away effect on performance
- more teams win at home than away
- a crowd may be judged as supportive or hostile
- high levels of anxiety caused by hostility may reduce performance
- the environment is familiar to home teams therefore home players are more comfortable, therefore limiting anxiety and enables a worry free performance.
Factors that are affected by increased aorusal
Facilitation
- gross motor skills
- extroverts
- type b personality
- dominant response is well learned
- simple skills
- autonomous phase of learning
Inhibition
- fine motor skills
- introverts
- type a personality
- dominant response is not fully learned
- complex skills
- cognitive phase of learning
Causes of evaluation apprehension
-intention of observers to evaluate the performer- trials, selections and finals
- status of observers, preserved pressure/level of the event
- known observers to the performer
- personal factors- trait state anxiety
- large spectators
- arena- home/away
Effects of evaluation apprehension
- apprehension due to belief that the audience will evaluate the performance. Performance inhibited cognitive/novice. Negative effect chocking.
- if the belief is that the audience are supportive then this could lead to a improvement in performance. Task mastery (autonomous) better performance.
- apprehension/anxiety causes increased arousal
Leads to better performance/inverted U/drive theory
Using Cottrell’s theory of Evaluation Apprehension, assess the effect that ‘others’ could have on the performance of an under-18 club debutant.
• The presence of others can either facilitate or inhibit an athlete’s performance (AO2).
• The presence and effect of others can be grouped as passive and/or interactive others and, dependent on their status or the situation, the performer can be aroused to perform better or over-aroused and suffer from apprehension and anxiety (AO3).
The apprehension and consequent arousal (positive) or consequent anxiety (negative) can be affected by the following:
- The other is an evaluator and is of high status, and/or the opposite sex.
This can motivate or inhibit (AO2).
• The performer has low self-esteem or perceived low ability, this will usually lead to increased apprehension and anxiety (AO2).
• If there is a crowd present and they are vociferously critical, this can lead to increased arousal but is more likely to lead to increased apprehension and anxiety (A03).
If the event is considered to be important this can lead to increased arousal but is more likely to lead to increased apprehension and anxiety
(AO3)-
Proximity effect
Schwartz (1975) proposed that location of the audience in relation to the performance was an important factor in social facilitation.
• Performers appear to experience the effects more intensely the closer the audience gets.
• This phenomenon is more evident in indoor sports such as basketball and ice hockey.
• The proximity of the audience can have either a facilitating or inhibitory influence.
• The outcome is dependent on the type of skill learnt, the personality of the performer, stage of learning and experience level of the athlete.
Explain three methods an athlete could use to help minimise social inhibition.
1.
Imagery techniques/selective attention to shut out/block out the audience.
2.
Relaxation techniques (e.g. deep breathing) to help the performer relax and reduce tension.
3.
Train in front of an audience/ with loud noise/playing crowd noise to enable the performer to get used to it.
4.
Support from peers and coach to reassure performer.
5.
Thought stopping (e.g. count to 10) can help performer control thoughts/worry about nerves and the audience.
6.
Over-learn/rehearse/practice/groove skills to ensure they are automatic/correct dominant response so that when the performer gets nervous/increases in arousal the correct response is still performed.
7.Decrease the importance of the event
Problems of zajoncs theory
Although Martens (1969) confirmed Zajonc’s predictions, there are also drawbacks to the theory!
• Landers and McCullage (1976) proposed that skills were learned more effectively by an individual in the presence of others who were also learners but of a slightly superior ability.
• The learning of motor skills can therefore be enhanced by the presence of co-actors, but the attention of an audience will inhibit learning.
• If skill levels can be improved, there is a greater chance that sport will become a permanent part of a person’s lifestyle
Characteristics of NAF
A01
- they want to avoid the situation
- they want to take the easy option
- they are afraid of failure
- they are more likely to give up
- they seek out easy situations
A02
-they avoid personal responsibility
- they don’t want the knowledge of results or feedback ‘- they perform worse when being evaluated
- they have a drive to avoid shame and humiliation
