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MT 13 LAB > F_Chapter 13: THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM & IMMUNE SYSTEM > Flashcards

F_Chapter 13: THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM & IMMUNE SYSTEM Flashcards

1
Q

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM includes _____and _____

Its 2 main organs

A

Lymphatic Vessels and Lymphoid Tissues/Organs

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2
Q

transport fluids that have escaped from the blood back to the cardiovascular system

A

Lymphatic Vessels

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3
Q

house phagocytic cells and lymphocytes–play a role in immunity.

A

Lymphoid Tissue

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4
Q

fluid that escaped and is moved by the lympathic system

A

lymph fluid (or just lymph)

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5
Q

Why is the lympathic system a low pressure system?

A

because it is pumpless system

* A Low-pressure, pumpless system

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6
Q

How is the lymph transported throughout the body?

A

The lymph is transported through the milking action of the skeletal muscles and pressure changes in the thorax during breathing.

milking action: like when walking
pressure changes: like peristalsis

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7
Q

it functions as an elaborate drainage system that picks up excess interstitial fluid (now referred to as Lymph) and
returns it to the blood

A

Lymphatic vessels

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8
Q

the excess tissue fluid, and the plasma proteins that escape the blood MUST be carried back to the blood. Why?

How much insterstitial fluid can be created from the blood? How much is required blood volume of the body?

A

for the vascular system to have sufficient blood volume to operate

3 L interstitial fluid
5-6 L blood volume

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9
Q

If the excess fluid is not returned and accumulates as interstitial fluid, it will result in _______

What is needed to ease edema?

A

edema

Edema can be eased by a hypertonic solution and decreasing AVP

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10
Q

Lympathic vessels form what type of system that makes it similar to the heart?

What is the rule for the flow of Lymph? How is it made possible?

A

ONE-WAY SYSTEM

RULE: Lymph flows only towards the heart

This one-way system is made possible due to the existence of Minivalves within these vessels

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11
Q

Disadvantage of One-Way System of the Lymphatic vessels

Partial Solution to the Disadvantage?

A

bacteria, viruses, and cancer
cells easily enter the lymphatics and use it to travel the body

Partly resolved by the existence of White Blood Cells (WBCs) that can also travel in the lymphatic system – and take shortcuts through the lymph nodes

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12
Q

What happens to cancer cells when it flows in the lympathic system?

A

malignant cancer cells metastasize or spread throughout the body leading to sepsis

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13
Q

Enlarged/swelling lymph nodes is a sign of?

A

infection

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14
Q

type of WBC that specializes certain pathogens as targets

A

neutrophils

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15
Q

it contains cells that help protect the body by removing foreign material such as bacteria and tumor cells from the lymphatic stream

A

LYMPH NODES

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16
Q

It also provides a place where lymphocytes can be activated

A

LYMPH NODES

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17
Q

lymphocytes created in the bone marrow are still ________

this is the term used for WBCs found in the bone marrow

A

naive or immature

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18
Q

Where are lymphocytes activated?

A

lymph nodes?

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19
Q

Cell population in lymph nodes

A

Macrophages and Lymphocytes

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20
Q

the nodes, during inflammation/infection, usually get _____

it happens to the nodes when infected

what are the 2 possible cases for this?

A

swollen

  • could be temporary (caused by infection)
  • increase and never go down(cancer cells)
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21
Q

What is the sign of cancer related to the lymph nodes

you drink something which results to a specific effect occuring in the lymph node

A

drinking antibiotic and then the lymph nodes shrink/mugamay

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22
Q

internal framework of the lymph nodes

A

network of reticular connective tissue that provides a “headquarters” for lymphocytes as they monitor the lymphatic stream

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23
Q

what provides a headquarters for lymphocytes as they monitor the lympathic system?

this is found what part of the lympathic system?

A

reticular connective tissue

lymph nodes

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24
Q

Lymphocytes arise from the _________ but then migrate to the ________ and other _________, where they reproduce
further.

A

Lymphocytes arise from the red bone marrow but then migrate to the lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs, where they reproduce
further.

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25
Q

outer part of the lymph node which contains follicles

A

cortex

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26
Q

collections of lymphocytes that have germinal centers

this is found what part of the lympathic system?

A

follicles

Lymph nodes inside the cortex

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27
Q

inner part of lymph nodes, contains phagocytic macrophages

what phagocytic cells are meant by the question? what happens to these cells in this area?

A

central medulla

B and T cells.

This is where B cells mature into plasma cells

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28
Q

the only cell that creates/responsible for releasing ANTIBODIES (specific defense mechanism)

what happens to germinal centers when these cells are generated?

A

Plasma cells

germinal centers enlarge when B Lymphocytes are generating daughter cells – Plasma Cells.

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29
Q

a cell in the cortex of the lymph node constantly on the move between the blood, lymph nodes, and lymphatic stream – to monitor

A

T Lymphocytes

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30
Q

Is the flow of the lymph fast or slow? Is it an advantage? Why or why not?

the flow depends on?

A

The flow of lymph is very slow, which allows time for the lymphocytes and macrophages to perform their protective functions.

the flow of the lymph depends on the milking action and breathing of the body

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31
Q

A type of loose connective tissue together with Areolar & Adipose

A

Reticular Connective Tissue

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32
Q

Reticular Connective Tissue Consists of a delicate network of interwoven ___________ associated with ___________ (resemble __________)

A

Consists of a delicate network of interwoven reticular fibers associated with reticular cells (resemble fibroblasts)

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33
Q

The reticular connective tissue is limited to certain sites and forms the ___________, or the internal framework of an organ

A

stroma (bed or mattress)

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34
Q

What tissue is this?

Binds together smooth muscle tissue cells

2 general functions of this tissue under this?

A

Reticular Connective Tissue

o Support many free blood cells (largely WBC called lymphocytes), in lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, the spleen, and bone marrow.

o Filters and removes worn-out blood cells (spleen) and Microbes (lymph nodes)

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35
Q

3 main areas where lymph nodes are located

A
  1. Cervical nodes
  2. Axillary nodes
  3. Inguinal nodes
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36
Q

All lymphoid organs have

A

predominance of reticular connective tissue
and lymphocytes

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37
Q

What are the other lymphoid organs

A

✓ Spleen
✓ Thymus
✓ Tonsils
✓ Peyer’s Patches
✓ Appendix
✓ Bits of scattered lymphoid tissue

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38
Q

The only organ/part of the lymphatic system that filters thew lymph

Why?

A

Although ALL LYMPHOID ORGANS have roles in protecting the body, ONLY the lymph nodes filter lymph

since lymph doesn’t flow in the other organs

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39
Q

Filters and cleanses blood of bacteria, viruses, & other debris

A

Spleen

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40
Q

provides a site for lymphocyte proliferation & immune surveillance

A

Spleen

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41
Q

msot important function of the spleen

A

Destroy worn-out red blood cells

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42
Q

This is the graveyard of RBC.

What happens after the RBCs are destroyed?

A

Spleen

After destroying worn-out RBCs, it returns some of their breakdown
products to the liver. (heme and globin)

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43
Q

functions in storing platelets and acts as a blood reservoir

What other organ functions as a blood reservoir (there are 2 in total)

A

Spleen

Spleen and Liver function as blood reservoir - this reservoir is used during accidents

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44
Q

Function of spleen in infants that is eventually lost later in life

What other organs have this function?

A

IN INFANTS, the spleen is an important hematopoietic site but will lose this function later in life

the sites include the bone marrow, spleen, and lungs

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45
Q

Produces thymosin to help program the growth of T lymphocytes

A

Thymus

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46
Q

As you get older, this organ gets smaller until fibrous tissue remains

A

Thymus

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47
Q

the function of the thymus is at peak level during

age/time in life?

A

youth

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48
Q

Small masses of lymphoid tissue
* Trap and remove bacteria or other pathogens entering the throat

A

TONSILS

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49
Q

Term used for a congested and inflamed tonsils caused by bacteria

why is it inflamed? what possible measures can be done to the organ affected?

A

Tonsilitis

Inflamed because of the presence of bacteria; tonsil can be removed because it can do more harm than good (continuously infected)

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50
Q

Resemble tonsils; found in the wall of the distal small intestine

A

PEYER’S PATCHES

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51
Q

A tubelike offshoot of the proximal large intestine

It can also be removed like tonsils. Why?

A

APPENDIX

It can be removed but it still has functions in the body. Removed because its positive functions/effects is outweighed by the harm that it does to the body when infected

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52
Q

Macrophages in this organ are in an ideal position to capture and destroy harmful bacteria

A

Appendix

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53
Q

These 2 lymphoid organs help protect the intestine

A

Appendix and Peyer’s Patches

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54
Q

A collection of small lymphoid tissues which include the Tonsils, Peyer’s Patches and Appendix

this collection of lymphoid tissue collectively acts to protect (2)

A

MUCOSA-ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID TISSUE (MALT)

Collectively, they act as sentinel to protect the respiratory and digestive tracts

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55
Q

Location of the differnt lymphoid organs in the body

A
  1. Tonsils (pharyngeal region)
  2. Thymus (thorax)
  3. Red Bone Marrow
  4. Peyer’s Patches (intestine)
  5. Appendix (right inguinal?)
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56
Q

Highly specific resistance to disease

A

Immunuity/immune

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57
Q

The immune system is a functional organ system. meaning?

A

It doesn’t have a specific location of function. It also doesn’t have a single structure for its function

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58
Q

Also called Nonspecific Defense System
* Responds IMMEDIATELY to protect the body from all foreign
substances, whatever they are

When do we get innate immunity to function in our body? In what part of our life does is start functioning?

A

Innate Immunity

We are born with out innate defenses

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59
Q

How does the innate immunity help the adaptive defense

A

Innate immunity reduces the workload of the adaptive defense mechanisms by generally preventing the entry & spread of microorganisms in the body

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60
Q

Type of immunity: mechanical barriers that cover body surfaces and the cells and chemicals that act on the battlefronts to protect the body from invading pathogens

A

INNATE IMMUNITY

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61
Q

1st line of defense

It includes what?

A

SURFACE MEMBRANE BARRIERS

Includes the skin and mucous membranes, and their secretions
(1) Intact Skin
(2) Intact mucous membranes

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62
Q

Forms mechanical barrier that prevents entry of pathogens and other harmful substances into body.

what line of defesnse? What’s included in this?

A

Intact skin (EPIDERMIS)

1st line of defense
1. Acid Mantle
2. Keratin

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63
Q

Skin secretions make epidermal surface acidic, which inhibits
bacterial growth; sebum also contains bacteria-killing chemicals

what line of defesnse?

A

Acid Mantle

1st line

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64
Q

Provides resistance against acids, alkalis, and bacterial enzymes

what line of defesnse?

A

Keratin

1st

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65
Q

Form mechanical barrier that prevents entry of pathogens. Not the intact skin

What line of defense? What’s included in this?

A

Intact mucous membranes

1st line of defense
1. Mucus
2. Nasal Hairs
3. Cilia
4. Gastric juice
5. Acid Mantle of the Vagina
6. Lacrimal secretion (tears); saliva

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66
Q

Traps microorganisms in respiratory and digestive tracts.

What line of defense?

A

Mucus

1st line

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67
Q

Filter and trap microorganisms and other airborne particles in nasal passages.

line of defense?

A

Nasal Hairs

1st line

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68
Q

Propel debris-laden mucus away from lower respiratory passages.

line of defense?

A

Cilia

1st line

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69
Q

Contains concentrated hydrochloric acid and protein-digesting enzymes that destroy pathogens in stomach

line of defense?

A

Gastric juice

1st line

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70
Q

Inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi in female reproductive tract.

line of defense?

A

Acid mantle of vagina

1st line

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71
Q

Continuously lubricate and cleanse eyes () and oral cavity (); contain lysozyme, an enzyme that destroys microorganisms

line of defense?

A

Lacrimal secretion (tears); saliva

1st line

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72
Q

2nd line of defense

What’s included?

A

Cellular and chemical defenses

  1. Phagocytes
  2. Natural killer cells
  3. Inflammatory response
  4. Antimicrobial chemicals
  5. Fever
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73
Q

Engulf and destroy pathogens that breach surface membrane barriers; macrophages also contribute to immune response

What line of defense? What are included?

A

Phagocytes

2nd line: Neutrophil and Macrophage

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74
Q

Promote cell lysis by direct cell attack against virus-infected or
cancerous body cells; do not depend on specific antigen recognition.

line of defense?

A

Natural killer cells

2nd line

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75
Q

Prevents spread of injurious agents to adjacent tissues, disposes of pathogens and dead tissue cells, and promotes tissue repair; releases chemical mediators that attract phagocytes (and immune cells) to the area.

line of defense?

A

Inflammatory response

2nd line

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76
Q

Group of plasma proteins that lyses microorganisms, enhances phagocytosis by opsonization, and intensifies inflammatory response.

This is under what 2nd line of defense?

A

Complement

Antimicrobial chemicals
*Complement
* Interferons
* Fluids with acid pH

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77
Q

Proteins released by virus-infected cells that protect uninfected tissue cells from viral takeover; mobilize immune system.

This is under what 2nd line of defense?

A

Interferons

Antimicrobial chemicals
- Complement
- Interferon
- fluids with acid pH

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78
Q

Normally acid pH inhibits bacterial growth; urine cleanses the lower urinary tract as it flushes from the body.

This is under what 2nd line of defense?

A

Fluids with acid pH

Antimicrobial chemicals
- Complement
- Interferon
- fluids with acid pH

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79
Q

Systemic response triggered by pyrogens; high body temperature
inhibits multiplication of bacteria and enhances body repair processes

This is under what line of defense?

A

fever

2nd line

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80
Q

natural bacteria found in the acid mantle of the vagina

Why does it live/survive in the vagina? What could be a reason of its death? What is its main function?

A

Lactobacillus acidophilus

It survives because of the acidic nature

It dies if the pH is not stable, thus girls need to maintain the acidic nature of the vagina

Its main function is that it prevents the growth of bad bacteria and fungi (UTI, yeast infection)

It eats up all the nutrients thus no nutrients are given to possible bacteria

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81
Q

enzyme found in lacrimal secretions that kills bacteria

A

lysozyme

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82
Q

What makes Natural killer cells different from B and T cells?

A
  • it is found in the 2nd line of defense
  • it is not a phagocyte
  • it detects pathogens immediately
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83
Q

Why is an NK cell not a phagocyte?

A

Unlike phagocytes, it promotes cell lysis (burst) though 2 enzymes: perforin and grandzyme

84
Q

2 enzymes found/produced in/by NK cells that help promote cell lysis

A

perforin: pokes cancer cells
granzyme: eat contents from the cancer cells

85
Q

NK cells are indiscriminatory, it can attack even our own cells. Why does it not do that?

A

Our cells are not killed by NK cells because they have INHIBITORS

86
Q

What does a cell release when its damaged?

these released substances serve as the body’s _______

A

KIININ & HISTAMINE

Alarm system “Chemical alarm”

87
Q

The release of Kinin, Histamine, and other chemicals (chemical alarm) when cells are damaged leads to

3 events

A
  1. Blood vessels dilate
  2. Capillaries become leaky
  3. Neutrophils and then monocytes enter the area (Positive chemotaxis)
88
Q

The dilation of blood vessels caused by the chemical alarms lead to ________ which also causes 3 events to occur(?)

A

Increased blood flow in the area

which causes Redness, Heat, and

brings more nutrients and oxygen to the area

89
Q

heat from increased blood flow into the area causes

A

an increase in metabolic rate of tissue cells which leads to healing

90
Q

What happens when capillaries become leaky because of the chemical alarms

2 events

A
  1. Edema
  2. Clotting proteins enter the area (creates a fibrin barrier leading to healing)
91
Q

Edema caused by the leaking of capillaries lead to

2

how does edema cause these 2 events

A
  • Pain
  • Swelling

both lead to TEMPORARY LOSS OF FUNCTION or TEMPORARY LIMITATION OF JOINT MOVEMENT which both lead to healing

pain results from the increase of pressure which pushes the pain receptors

92
Q

The first phagocyte to go to the injured/infected area? Who’s the next?

time duration of arrival for each phagocyte?

A

Neutrophils and then monocytes

Neutrohpil: 3-6 hrs after infection; it waits for the
Monocyte: 12 hrs: finishes the job

Basically neutrohil is a weak phagocyte thus it transforms/replaced by a macropphage, a strong phagocyte

93
Q

Positve chemotaxis caused by release of chemical alarms leads to

A

removal of damaged/dead tissue cells and pathogens from the area which leads to healing

94
Q

instructions to create something to interfere with the entry of a virus

A

Interferons

95
Q

define a virus

is it alive/dead? cell/not cell?

how does it attack a cell?

A

A virus is dead outside the cell but alive when inside one.

It is not a cell; it is only a floating DNA covered with protein

it gets inside the cell,
its covering is broken,
dna gets inside nucles,
it incorporates its cell/dna or “hijack” the cell,
it uses the cell to create more copies of its own cell/dna/virus

96
Q

What is the main purpose of a complement?

What is its end product?

A

Cell lysis

end product of complement: Membrane Attack complex (MAC)

97
Q

how does a complement lyse microorganisms?

name of the process

A

through Compliment fixation

an inactive protein activates when it attaches to something (like a bacteria, etc)

Compliment fixation ENHANCES Phagocytosis

98
Q

how does a complement help fight bacteria through opsonization

A

it makes foreign pathogen sticky (since naturally slippery and bacteria)

the complement is attached to the bacteria and it is what the WBC holds for easy phagocytosis

99
Q

A function of the complement that is similar with the positive chemotaxis

A

Intensifies inflammatory response

100
Q

A function of the complement that is similar with the positive chemotaxis

A

Intensifies inflammatory response

101
Q

Thermostat of the body

What triggers this to increase its temperature?

A

Hypothalamus

WBC releases Pyrogen that triggers the hypothalamus to increase the body’s temperature.

102
Q

How does heat kill a bacteria?

A
  1. It directly kills the bacteria
  2. Heat serves as an alarm for spleen and liver - if heat increases - they get and store the iron and zinc (nutrients required for the growth of bacteria)
103
Q

Why is too much fever bad?

A

Proteins denature because of prolonged heat - the complex structure gets destroyed and proteins lose their function

104
Q

Also known as the Specific Defense System
• Fights invaders that get past the innate defense by mounting an attack against one or more SPECIFIC foreign substance

A

Adaptive Immunity

105
Q

What must happen first before the adaptive System can protect the body?

A

The adaptive system must first meet or be “sensitized” by an initial exposure to the antigen before it can protect the body

106
Q

It REMEMBERS which invaders it has fought – has both specificity and memory

type of immunity

A

Adaptive Immunity

107
Q

2 main players in the Adaptive immunity

A
  1. Antibodies
  2. Lymphocytes
108
Q

What makes up for the precision of the adaptive immunity’s counterattacks?

A

Its lack of speed

109
Q

TWO ARMS OF THE ADAPTIVE DEFENSE

What cells are found in each arm?

A
  1. Humoral Immunity (Antibody-Mediated Immunity)
  2. Cellular Immunity (Cell-Mediated Immunity)

  1. Humoral - B cell + etc?
  2. Cellular Immunity - only T cell
110
Q

a cell type that functions in the cellular immunity (cell mediated-immunity)

it directly attacks or interacts with the pathogen

A

T cells

111
Q

If B cell functions as a part of the humoral immunity, how does function indirectly?

A

Although B cell makes the antibody - the antibody is the one who functions/carries out its tasks

112
Q

2 main factors that contribute to Antigen reaction

A
  1. size
  2. composition
113
Q

The Humoral immunity is provided by _________ present in the body’s humors or fluids

wha type of substance is this and where is it found?

A

Provided by antibodies (immunoglobulins)

Proteins found in plasma

114
Q

Type of adaptive immunity when lymphocytes themselves defend the body * Protective factor is living cells

What type of lymphocyte is meant?

A

Cellular Immunity (Cell-mediated Immunity)

Only T cells (directlyy attack/interact with pathogen)

Not B cells because they are hummoral (indirect). although B cell makes the antibody, the antibody is the one that controls/carries out its function,

115
Q

This type of adaptive defense also has cellular targets – virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and cells of foreign grafts

A

Cellular Immunity (Cell-Mediated Immunity

116
Q

How can Cellular Immunity (cell-mediated immunity) act directly and indirectlty?

A

Act directly (lysing the cell) or indirectly (release chemicals to activate other immune cells)

117
Q
A
118
Q

Is any substance capable of provoking an immune response

REMEMBER!!

A

Immunogen

Not all antigens can provoke an immune response but all immunogens can!

NOT ALL ANTIGENS are IMMUNOGENS but ALL IMMUNOGENS are ATNIGENS!

119
Q

Almost limitless variety of substances can act as antigens, including ________

4 substances

What substance evokes the strongest response? the weakest?

A

all foreign proteins, nucleic acids, large carbohydrates, and some lipids (small)

Among these substances, Proteins evoke the strongest response; they speed up/;inrease reaction rate

Lipids evoke the weakest response as they easily get inside the plasma membrane

120
Q

Where are antigens usually found?

A

They are usually on the plasma membrane of bacteria, viruses, fungi and even pollen grains

121
Q

Our body also have antigens on its own, however, our immune system have ______ that prevents these antigens to attack our own

What happens if these antigens are given to other people?

A

self-tolerance

However, if given to other people, it will be antigenic to them

122
Q

Cells in the Adaptive system

2

Where do each cell type originate?

A

1. Lymphocytes
- NK (1st line), B, T Lymphocytes

2. Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)

LYMPHOCYTES
* All originate from hemocytoblasts in red bone marrow

123
Q

Cells in the Adaptive system

a unique lymphocyte; it is involved in the Innate defense rather than adaptive defense

A

NK cells

124
Q

Cells in the Adaptive system

produce antibodies (plasma cells) and oversee humoral immunity

A

B lymphocytes (B Cells)

125
Q

Cells in the Adaptive system

constitute-cell mediated arm of the adaptive defenses and DO NOT make antibodies

A

T Lymphocytes (T Cells)

126
Q

Cells in the Adaptive system

recognize & eliminate specific virus-infected or tumor cells

They respond to problems in the nucles thus they are found/called as?

A

T cells

Intracellular cells

127
Q

Cells in the Adaptive system

can target specific extracellular antigens or antigens outside (on plasma or floating membrane)

A

B cells

128
Q

Cells in the Adaptive system

Describe the T cells that go out of the bone marrow

2

A

immature (naïve) and are NOT immunocompetent

129
Q

Cells in the Adaptive system

Where does a T cell develop/activate?

What are required of them, before they can go out (what do they need to learn?)

A

It develops/acitivates in the THYMUS

LESSONS LEARNED:
1. learn how to identify foreign material
2. specialization (specifiy the target antigen)
3. Internship (in lymph nodes, spleen, & other lymphoid tissues)

130
Q

where is the concept of self-tolerance derived from?

What is its significance?

A

The first lesson learned by T cells in the Thymus: To identify a foreign material

It prevents lymphocytes from attacking our own cells leading to autoimmune diseases (cells attack our own if they can’t identify)

131
Q

Cells in the Adaptive system

develop their immunocompetence in the bone marrow but is activated in a different site/organ

A

B cells

132
Q

term that means that a lymphocyte can respond to a specific antigen by binding to it with antigen-specific receptors that appear on the lymphocyte’s surface

A

Immunocompetence

133
Q

Cells in the Adaptive system

DO NOT respond to specific antigens
* Instead, play an essential role in activating the lymphocytes that respond to specific antigens

A

ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS (APCs)

134
Q

Major role of Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)

A

engulf antigens and then present fragments of them on their own surfaces where they can be recognized by T cells

They present antigens to the cells that will deal with the antigens

135
Q

Major types of APCs include

The best or most effective APC (Antigen-presenting cell)? why is it the best?

A

Dendritic Cells, Macrophages,
B Lymphocytes

Dendritic cells are the most effective

  • since they can also migrate to secondary lymphoid organs coupled with their long extensions that are very efficient antigen catchers
136
Q

Why/How does the body recognize bacteria and pathogen without knowing everything about the bacteria?

A

Through APC (Antigen Presenting Cells)

these engulf antigens –> show the fragments to lymphocytes –> lymphocytes are activated

137
Q

When APCs present antigen, they Activate ________ which in turn release chemicals that will also activate the ____________ to become the ____________ – phagocytize and secrete bactericidal chemicals

A

When APCs present antigen, they Activate T Cells which in turn release chemicals that will also activate the macrophages to become the “true killers”– phagocytize and secrete bactericidal chemicals

138
Q

type of cell

a key link between innate and adaptive immunity

A

Dendritic Cells

139
Q

When an immunocompetent but still naïve B cell encounters an
antigen, it will further develop and become ________ or if they don’t, they become ____________

these are the ones that are creating antibodies

A

Plasma Cell

Memory Cell

Plasma Cells

140
Q

Type of cell

responsible for the faster secondary humoral response– faster, longer, stronger

capable of responding to the same antigen if they see it again

what is its previous cell type?

A

Memory
Cells

B cells

141
Q

The phase that can last for almost a week in which there is zero antibody concentration in blood plasma

A

Lag phase

142
Q

Cell activated in:
- Primary Response?
- Secondary Response?

A

Cell activated in:
Primary Response: activated B cells (Plasma or Memory B cell)

Secondary Response: Clone of cells identical to ancestors (more plasma and memory)

143
Q

Humoral Immunity can either be ______ or ______

Which are actively making antibodies and which functions by receiving premade antibodies

A

Active or passive

Naturally acquired or aritificially acquired

Active are actively making antibodies and Passive functions by receiving premade antibodies

144
Q

Active vs Passive Humoral immunity

  1. How is it naturally acquired?
  2. How is it artifically acquired?
  3. Length of effectivity (long/short term)
  4. Are B cells activated?
A

Active
- Naturally acquired through infection/contact with pathogen
- Artifically acquired through vaccines; dead or attenuated pathogens (Sinovac & pfizer)
- long term
- B cells are activated?

Passive
- Naturally acquired through antibodies passed from mother to fetus via placenta; or to infant in her milk
- Artifically acquired though injection of donated antibodies (GAMMA GLOBULIN) (ex: Hepa vax)
- short term
- B cells are not activated (since antibodies are not exposed to antigens)

145
Q

Antibodies are also referred to as ___________ and they constitue the ___________ part of blood properties

Do they bind specifically or not? Do they destroy directly or not?

A

Anitbodies are also referred to as Immunoglobulins (Ig) and they constitute the gamma globulin part of blood proteins

Binding specifically with a particular antigen

Do not destroy directly

146
Q

the function of antibodies is to Inactivate antigens through

5 ways

What is the most important?

A
  • complement fixation
  • neutralization
  • agglutination
  • opsonization
  • precipitation

MOST IMPORTANT:
- Complement Fixation
- Neutralization

147
Q

function of the antibody

this occurs when antibodies bind to specific sites on bacterial exotoxins (toxic proteins released by bacteria). They prevent the exotoxins from binding to body cells.

What do these exotoxins do?

What exactly do antibodies do in this function?

A

Neutralization

Exotoxins kill healthy cells once they attach to them

Antibodies surrounds the exotoxins to prevent them from attaching to healthy cells (basically they neutralize its function)

148
Q

Toxic proteins released by bacteria that kill healthy cells once they attach to them

A

Exotoxins

149
Q

function of the antibody

is the cross-linking of antigen-antibody complexes from cell-bound antigens (seen on top of plasma membrane)

How does this function make it easier for WBCs to attack pathogens?

A

Agglutination

Easier for WBCs to attack since it results to clumping

150
Q

what is the function of Antibodies in relation to the function of WBCs

A

antibodies only assist in the attack; they do not directly attack pathogens

151
Q

is the cross-linking of antigen-antibody complexes from soluble antigens that become so large that they become insoluble and settle out of solution.

What are soluble antigens?

A

Precipitation

Soluble antigens are antiogens that float on its own

152
Q

What makes Agglutination and Precipitation functions of the Antibody similar in principle?

A

These agglutinated and Precipitated antigen molecules are easier to capture and engulf through the body’s phagocytes

153
Q

5 Classes of Immunoglobulins

  1. What is the largest?
  2. What is the most abundant?
A
  1. IgM (Mew) - largest
  2. IgA (Alpha)
  3. IgD (Delta)
  4. IgG (Gamma) - most abundant
  5. IgE (Epsilon)
154
Q

A class of antibody that has 5 antibodies

What do you call the 5 antibodies together attached to B cell?

What do you call only one of the antibodies free in plasma?

A

IgM (Mew)

Monomer: the 5 antibodies together ATTACHED TO B CELL
Pentamere: only one of the antibodies FREE IN PLASMA

155
Q

Class of Antibody:

When bound to B cell membrane, serves as antigen receptor; first Ig class released by plasma cells during primary response; potent agglutinating agent; fixes complement.

A

IgM

156
Q

what do you call the antibodies in the IgA class?

(their structure)

what are examples of this class and where are they found?

A

dimer

Monomer in plasma
Dimer in secretions
- saliva, tears, intestinal juice, and milk

157
Q

Class of Antibody:

Bathes and protects mucosal surfaces from attachment of pathogens.

A

IgA

158
Q

Class of Antibody:

Its true function is still unknown Believed to be cell surface receptor of immunocompetent B cell; important in activation of B cell.

where is it found?

A

IgD

It is always attached to B cell

159
Q

Class of Antibody:

Main antibody of both primary
and secondary responses;
crosses placenta and provides passive immunity to fetus; fixes complement.

A

IgG

160
Q

Class of Antibody:

What class of antibody is used in vaccines; it is long lasting

A

IgG

161
Q

Class of Antibody:

Binds to mast cells and basophils
and triggers release of histamine and other chemical mediators of inflammation and some allergic responses.

where is it found (or how is it produced?)

A

IgE

Secreted by plasma cells in skin, mucosae of gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts, and tonsils

162
Q

Lymphocyte that resides in the lymph nodes, spleen, or other lymphoid tissues, where it is
induced to replicate by antigen-binding and helper T cell interactions; its progeny (clone members) form plasma cells and memory cells.

A

B CELL

163
Q

Antibody-producing “machine”; produces huge numbers of the same antibody (immunoglobulin); specialized B cell clone descendant

A

Plasma Cell

164
Q

A T cell that binds with a specific antigen presented by an APC; it stimulates the production of other immune cells(cytotoxic T cells and B cells) to help fight the invader; acts both directly and indirectly by releasing cytokines.

A

Helper T cell

165
Q

It is the most important T cell

Why?

A

Helper T Cell

DIRECTOR/MANAGER T CELL

It is the most important T cell because it controls the population of B cells and Cytotoxic T cells

166
Q

Activity enhanced by helper T cells; its specialty is killing cells with intracellular antigens (like viruses or some bacteria), as well as body cells that have become cancerous; involved in graft rejection.

its also called the?

A

Cytotoxic T cell

Also called the Killer T Cells

167
Q

Slows or stops the activity of B and T cells once the infection (or attack by foreign cells) has been conquered. Thought to be important in preventing autoimmune diseases.

From this, what could be a possible contributing factor to having an autoimmune disease

A

Regulatory T cell

Possible cause of autoimmune disease is decreased Regulatory T Cells

since they function to prevent B and T cells from attacking our own body cells

168
Q

What 2 cells both attack pathogens through cell lysis with cytotoxins

what’s their difference?

A

Cytotoxic T Cell and NK cells

NK cell (2nd line of defense) - non-specific

Cytotoxic T cell (3rd line of defense) - specific

169
Q

Descendant of an activated B cell or T cell; generated during both primary and secondary immune responses; may exist in the body for years thereafter, enabling it to respond quickly and efficiently to subsequent infections or meetings with the same antigen.

A

Memory cell

170
Q

Any of several cell types (macrophage, dendritic cell, B cell) that engulfs and digests antigens that it encounters and presents parts of them on its plasma membrane for recognition by T cells bearing receptors for the same antigen; this function, antigen presentation, is essential for normal cell-mediated responses. Macrophages and dendritic cells also release chemicals (cytokines) that activate many other immune cells.

A

Antigen-presenting cell
(APC)

171
Q

Protein produced by a B cell or its plasma-cell offspring and released into body fluids (blood, lymph, saliva, mucus, etc.), where it attaches to antigens, causing neutralization, opsonization, precipitation, or agglutination, which “marks” the antigens for destruction by phagocytes or complement.

A

Antibody (immunoglobulin)

172
Q

Chemicals released by sensitized T cells, macrophages, and certain other cells

A

Cytokines

173
Q

Cytokines:

inhibits” macrophage migration and keeps them in the local area, and regulates the production of several other proinflammatory
cytokines.

A

Migration inhibitory factor (MIF)

174
Q

Cytokines:

stimulates T cells and B cells to proliferate; activates NK cells.

A

Interleukin 2

175
Q

Cytokines:

enhance antibody formation by plasma cells.

A

Helper factors

176
Q

Cytokines:

suppress antibody formation or T cell–mediated immune responses (interleukin-10 transforming growth factor and others).

A

Suppressor factors

177
Q

Cytokines:

attract leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) into inflamed area.

A

Chemotactic factors

178
Q

Cytokines:

secreted by lymphocytes; helps make tissue cells resistant to viral infection; activates macrophages and NK cells; enhances maturation of cytotoxic T cells.

A

Gamma interferon

179
Q

Like perforin (it pokes holes), causes cell killing; attracts granulocytes; activates T cells and macrophages.

A

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)

180
Q

Group of bloodborne proteins activated after binding to antibody-covered antigens; when activated, complement causes lysis of the microorganism and enhances inflammatory response.

A

Complement

181
Q

Substance capable of provoking an immune response; typically a large, complex molecule not normally present in the body.

A

Antigen

182
Q

Perforin, granzymes—cell toxins released by cytotoxic T cells and NK cells.

A

Cytotoxins

183
Q

2 types of adaptive immune response

How do antigens Activate B and Cytotoxic cells during 1st exposure?

During 2nd exposure?

A
  1. humoral (antibody-mediated) adaptive immune response
  2. Cellular (cell-mediated) adaptive immune response

Antigens Activate B and Cytotoxic cells during 1st exposure
- Macrophage –> APC –> Helper T cell –> Cytotoxic or B cell)
- (humoral) Free antigens directly activate B cell to Plasma cells;
- (Cellular) Antigens displayed by infected cells activate cytotoxic T cells

During 2nd exposure
- Memory T cell stimulate Memory B and T cells to activate Plasma cells (humoral) and Cytotoxic cells (cellular) respectively

184
Q

Who activates the B and cytotoxic T cells most of the time during adaptive immune responses?

A

Helper T Cells

185
Q

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE:

In severely infected areas, the “battle” will take a toll on both sides
* This is when an infection leads to the formation to the creamy, yellow fluid known as Pus

A

ABSCESS

186
Q

Pus is a mixture of the following:

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE: ABSCESS

A

✓ Dead and dying neutrophils and macrophages
✓ Broken-down tissue Cells
✓ Living and dead pathogens

187
Q

If inflammatory response FAILS to fully clear the area of debris, the sac of pus may separate from the tissue area and isolate itself by forming a wall→ _________

what do you call the wall

A

Forming an abscess

188
Q

What is necessary for the healing of an abscess

A

Surgical drainage of abscesses is often necessary before healing can occur

189
Q

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE:

Abnormally vigorous immune responses in which the immune system causes tissue damage as it fights off a perceived “threat” that would otherwise be harmless to the body

what is a type of antigen from those producing normal immune response

A

ALLERGIES (HYPERSENSITIVITIES)

Most of the time, people do not die of allergies

Allergen

190
Q

3 types of Allergies

Which is the most common type? Rare?

A
  1. ACUTE HYPERSENSITIVTY (IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVTY)
  2. ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK
  3. DELAYED HYPERSENSITIVITIES

Most common is ACUTE HYPERSENSITIVTY (IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVTY)

Anaphylactic Shock is RARE

191
Q

TYPES OF ALLERGIES:

After sensitization to a particular allergen, this type of response is
triggered when that allergen is encountered again. It will release a flood of histamine which causes small blood vessels to dilate and become leaky

Histamine is to blame for what common symptoms:

What other symptom may occur?

A

ACUTE HYPERSENSITIVTY (IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVTY)

Histamine is largely to blame of common symptoms: Runny nose, watery eyes, itchy, reddened skin

Asthma may also appear as bronchioles contract due to the allergen

192
Q

What causes the bronchioles to contract in ACUTE HYPERSENSITIVTY (IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVTY)

A

Allergens

193
Q

Treatment for ACUTE HYPERSENSITIVTY (IMMEDIATE HYPERSENSITIVTY)

A

Over-the-counter (OTC) Anti-Allergy Drugs which have antihistamines

194
Q

TYPES OF ALLERGIES:

BODYWIDE, SYSTEMIC, ACUTE ALLERGIC RESPONSE. Occurs when allergen directly enters the blood and circulates rapidly through the body

The response is usually the same, but since it is body-wide, the outcome is life threatening

what is an example situation for this type of allergy? What other triggers are common?

A

ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK

Example: Bee stings, spider bites, or injection of foreign substances

FOOD ALLERGIES may also trigger this condition – peanut and seafood allergies; fatal

195
Q

Treatment for ANAPHYLACTIC SHOCK

A

Epinephrine, found in EpiPen Shots, is the drug of choice to reverse the effects

196
Q

TYPES OF ALLERGIES

Mediated mainly by a special subgroup of helper T Cells, cytotoxic T Cells, and macrophages

How many days does it appear?

A

DELAYED HYPERSENSITIVITIES

Take much longer to appear (1 to 3 days)

197
Q

TYPES OF ALLERGIES :

Instead of histamine, the chemicals mediating the reactions are cytokines released by activated T cells. Hence, antihistamine drugs are NOT HELPFUL against this type

A

DELAYED HYPERSENSITIVITIES

198
Q

what is used to provide relief to Dealayed Hypersensitivities type of allergy

example of this allergy?

A

Corticosteroid Drugs

Allergic Contact Dermatitis which follow skin contact with poison ivy, some heavy metals (lead, mercury) and certain cosmetic and deodorant chemicals

199
Q

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE:

Immune system loses the ability to distinguish friend from foe
* Body produces auto-antibodies & sensitized T cells attack own tissues
* It’s the person’s own immune system producing the disorder
* Current therapies include treatment that depress certain aspects of the
immune response

A

AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES

200
Q

Most common autoimmune diseases:

define each

A

* Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) – systematically destroys joints

* Myasthenia Gravis – impairs communication between nerves and skeletal muscles

* Multiple Sclerosis (MS) – destroys white matter (myelin sheaths) of the brain and spinal cord

* Grave’s Disease – produce excessive thyroxine in response to autoantibodies that mimic TSH

* Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus – destroys beta cells, resulting in deficient production of insulin

* Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) – a systemic disease that occurs mainly in young women and particularly affects the kidneys,
hearts, and skin

* Glomerulonephritis – a severe impairment of kidney function due to acute inflammation

201
Q

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE:

Include both congenital and acquired conditions
* The production or function of immune cells or complement is abnormal

examples?

A

IMMUNODEFICIENCIES

Examples: SCID and AIDS

202
Q

Type of Immunodeficiency:

Most devasting congenital immunodeficiency condition
* There is marked deficit of both B and T cells
* Since T cells are absolutely required for normal operation of adaptive system → Afflicted children have essentially no protection against pathogens of any type

A

SEVERE COMBINED
IMMUNODEFIENCY DISEASE (SCID)

203
Q

Type of Immunodeficiency:

Minor infections are lethal to people with this imbalance

Interventions may include?

What happens if there are no interventions?

A

SEVERE COMBINED
IMMUNODEFIENCY DISEASE (SCID)

  • Interventions: Bone marrow transplant and umbilical cord blood transfusion – provide stem cells

Without such interventions, the only way is to put the person behind protective barriers such as a plastic bubble that keep out all infections

204
Q

Type of Immunodeficiency:

A
205
Q

Type of Immunodeficiency:

Currently the most important and most devasting of the acquired immunodeficiencies
* Cripples the immune system by interfering with the activity of the
helper T Cells

how is it commonly transferred from one person to another?

A

ACQUIRED IMMUNE
DEFICIENCY SYNDROME (AIDS)

Transferred from sexual intercourse

206
Q

The overall process done by a complemeent to form a certain product that initiates cell lysis via pore formation

What do you call the product?

A

Complement Cascade system

Membrane Attack complex (C5b-9)

MT 13 LAB (5 decks)

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