Exercise

Question 1

Define aerobic exercise and contrast it with non-aerobic exercise, providing examples of each.

Answer 1

• Aerobic exercise refers to physical activity that increases heart rate and breathing for an extended period, improving cardiorespiratory fitness. It involves the use of oxygen to adequately meet the energy demands of exercise via aerobic metabolism. Examples include running, swimming, and cycling. These activities typically require sustained effort over an extended period and engage large muscle groups continuously. Aerobic: Running a marathon or cycling for an hour.
• Non-aerobic exercise, also known as anaerobic exercise, involves intense, short bursts of activity where the energy required is supplied by anaerobic metabolism (without oxygen). Examples include weightlifting, sprinting, and high-intensity interval training (HIIT). These exercises are typically high-intensity and of short duration, focusing more on muscle strength and power rather than cardiovascular endurance. Non-aerobic: Performing a set of heavy squats.

Question 2

Discuss the physical, cognitive, and psychological benefits of engaging in aerobic exercise.

Answer 2

• Improves cardiovascular health by strengthening the heart and increasing its efficiency (Erickson et al., 2011).
• Enhances respiratory function and increases lung capacity.
• Aids in weight management by burning calories and reducing body fat.
• Improves muscle tone and strength.
• Increases brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which supports neurogenesis and cognitive function (Ferris et al., 2007).
• Enhances executive functions such as working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control (Chang et al., 2012).
• Improves brain plasticity and hippocampal volume, contributing to better memory (Erickson et al., 2011).
• Reduces symptoms of depression and anxiety through the release of endorphins and other neurotransmitters (Byun et al., 2014).
• Improves mood and overall well-being.
  Enhances sleep quality and reduces stress levels.

Question 3

Differentiate between strategic and static sports, giving examples of each.

Answer 3

• Strategic sports involve continuous and dynamic decision-making, requiring athletes to constantly adapt strategies based on the evolving context of the game. Examples include soccer, basketball, and tennis. These sports demand high levels of cognitive engagement, strategic planning, and quick decision-making.
  Static sports, on the other hand, involve repetitive movements and skills with minimal changes in strategy once the activity begins. Examples include weightlifting, shot put, and gymnastics. These sports emphasize precision, strength, and technique over dynamic strategy.

Question 4

Evaluate research supporting the idea that various sports offer distinct cognitive benefits and contribute to different cognitive profiles in athletes.

Answer 4

• Research indicates that different sports can enhance distinct cognitive functions due to the specific demands they place on athletes:
• Team sports (e.g., soccer, basketball) have been shown to improve executive functions, such as working memory and cognitive flexibility, due to the need for constant strategic thinking and coordination with teammates (Lambourne & Tomporowski, 2010).
• Racket sports (e.g., tennis, badminton) enhance visuospatial skills and reaction times, as players must quickly respond to fast-moving objects and opponents’ actions (Ludyga et al., 2016).
• Endurance sports (e.g., running, cycling) are associated with improvements in sustained attention and cognitive endurance, likely due to the prolonged mental focus required during extended periods of activity (McMorris et al., 2011).

Question 5

What are the primary moderators of the single-bout executive function (EF) benefit identified by meta-analyses?

Answer 5

• 1. Timing of EF assessment
• When EF is assessed during longer bouts of exercise (>20 min), improvements are observed, possibly due to alterations in the brain’s neurotransmitter systems, specifically the release of catecholamines (epinephrine and norepinephrine) from the adrenal medulla (Lambourne & Tomporowski, 2010; McMorris, 2021; McMorris et al., 2009).
• When EF is assessed following a single bout of exercise, studies consistently demonstrate immediate and sustained benefits lasting up to 60 min postexercise (Heath & Shukla, 2020; Hung et al., 2013; Joyce et al., 2009; Shukla et al., 2020; Shukla & Heath, 2022).
• For example, Chang et al.’s (2012) meta-analysis reported that a single-bout exercise improves EF immediately after exercise cessation for 11-20 min postexercise, while more recent work has shown that the benefit arising from moderate-intensity exercise can persist for up to 60 min (Hung et al., 2013; Johnson et al., 2016; Joyce et al., 2009; Shukla & Heath, 2022).
• 2. Exercise duration
• Even brief bouts of exercise can produce positive postexercise EF benefits.
• Samani and Heath (2018) instructed participants to complete 10 min of moderate-to-heavy intensity aerobic exercise and included a non-exercise control condition. They assessed EF using the antisaccade task before and immediately after exercise and found that antisaccade RTs were shortened following 10 min of exercise but not after a rest period (see also Dirk et al., 2020; Heath et al., 2018; Heath & Shukla, 2020; Petrella et al., 2019; Shukla et al., 2020). These findings demonstrate that even short durations of exercise can lead to improvements in EF.
• 3. Exercise intensity
• The intensity of exercise is another primary moderator of the postexercise EF benefit. Traditional active exercise manipulations require participants to voluntarily recruit muscle groups to perform a specific movement, stimulating various physiological responses in an intensity-dependent manner (Hoiland et al., 2019; Smith & Ainslie, 2017).
• Heath et al. (2018) employed participant-specific measures of lactate threshold (LT) to address the role of exercise intensity in the postexercise EF benefit. Participants completed separate 10-min bouts of moderate (80% of LT), heavy (15% of the difference between LT and VO2peak), and very-heavy (50% of the difference between LT and VO2peak) intensity exercise, and EF was assessed before and after each session using the antisaccade task. The results demonstrated that EF improved by comparable magnitudes following each bout of exercise, indicating an intensity-independent effect.
• 4. Cardiorespiratory fitness
• Participant fitness level has been proposed as another moderator of the single-bout EF benefit (Etnier et al., 2006).
• Dupuy et al. (2015) examined the association between cardiovascular fitness, EF, and prefrontal oxygenation in younger (18-28 years) and older (55-75 years) women. In both age groups, higher cardiovascular fitness levels were associated with better Stroop task performance and increased prefrontal oxygenation, suggesting that fitness may enhance EF and oxygenation.
• However, a more recent meta-analysis by Ludyga et al. (2016) reported that fitness level does not elicit a moderating effect on postexercise EF benefits.
  Cui et al. (2020) separated participants into high- and low-fit groups before they were asked to complete a 30-min single bout of moderate-intensity (60-69% HRmax) aerobic exercise. Although fMRI activation during the Stroop task differed between groups, with the high-fit group demonstrating lower activation of the ACC and DLPFC following exercise, EF improved in the low-fit but not the high-fit group. These findings highlight the equivocal nature of the moderating effect of participant fitness and the need for further investigation.

Question 6

Describe the mechanisms by which a single bout of aerobic exercise improves executive function, citing relevant studies.

Answer 6

• A single session of aerobic exercise can lead to immediate improvements in executive function through several interconnected mechanisms. The increased cerebral blood flow provides the necessary metabolic support, while the release of neurotransmitters and BDNF facilitates synaptic transmission and plasticity. The reduction in cortisol levels and enhanced neural efficiency further contribute to optimizing cognitive performance.
• 1. Increased cerebral blood flow: Exercise induces a rapid increase in cerebral blood flow, particularly to the prefrontal cortex, which is critical for executive function. Tsukamoto et al. (2017) demonstrated that a 10-minute bout of moderate-intensity cycling significantly increased oxygenated hemoglobin levels in the prefrontal cortex, as measured by near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS). This increased blood flow enhances the delivery of oxygen and glucose to the brain, providing the necessary substrates for cognitive processing
• (Tsukamoto, H., Suga, T., Takenaka, S., Tanaka, D., Takeuchi, T., Hamaoka, T., … & Hashimoto, T. (2017). Greater impact of acute high-intensity interval exercise on post-exercise executive function compared to moderate-intensity continuous exercise. Physiology & Behavior, 178, 143-149.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.12.021
• 2. Neurotransmitter release: Acute aerobic exercise triggers the release of several neurotransmitters, including dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, which play essential roles in cognitive function and mood regulation. Byun et al. (2014) found that a single 20-minute treadmill session increased dopamine levels in the striatum, as measured by positron emission tomography (PET). These neurotransmitters are involved in executive functions such as attention, working memory, and cognitive flexibility
• (Byun, K., Hyodo, K., Suwabe, K., Ochi, G., Sakairi, Y., Kato, M., … & Soya, H. (2014). Positive effect of acute mild exercise on executive function via arousal-related prefrontal activations: an fNIRS study. NeuroImage, 98, 336-345.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.04.067
• 3. Elevated brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels: BDNF is a protein that promotes neuronal survival, growth, and synaptic plasticity, which are crucial for learning and memory. Ferris et al. (2007) demonstrated that a single 30-minute bout of moderate-intensity cycling significantly increased serum BDNF levels in healthy adults. This transient increase in BDNF may facilitate short-term synaptic plasticity and support executive function performance.
• (Ferris, L. T., Williams, J. S., & Shen, C. L. (2007). The effect of acute exercise on serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels and cognitive function. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 39(4), 728-734.).
• 4. Reduced cortisol levels: Cortisol, a stress hormone, can impair executive function at high levels. However, moderate-intensity aerobic exercise has been shown to reduce cortisol levels, potentially mitigating its negative effects on cognitive performance. Heaney et al. (2013) found that a 30-minute treadmill session at 60% of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) significantly reduced serum cortisol levels in healthy adults
• (Heaney, J. L., Carroll, D., & Phillips, A. C. (2013). DHEA, DHEA-S and cortisol responses to acute exercise in older adults in relation to exercise training status and sex. Age, 35(2), 395-405.). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-011-9345-y
• 5. Enhanced neural efficiency: Acute aerobic exercise may improve the efficiency of neural networks involved in executive function. Basso et al. (2015) used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to demonstrate that a single 30-minute bout of moderate-intensity cycling led to reduced activation in the prefrontal cortex during a working memory task, suggesting increased neural efficiency
     (Basso, J. C., Shang, A., Elman, M., Karmouta, R., & Suzuki, W. A. (2015). Acute exercise improves prefrontal cortex but not hippocampal function in healthy adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 21(10), 791-801.). https://doi.org/10.1017/S135561771500106X

Question 7

Explain the mechanisms through which chronic aerobic exercise enhances executive function, using examples from research.

Answer 7

• Chronic aerobic exercise leads to sustained enhancements in executive function through several interconnected pathways. The structural brain changes, enhanced synaptic plasticity, improved cardiovascular health, reduced inflammation, and strengthened neural network connectivity all contribute to optimizing cognitive performance over time.
• 1. Neuroplasticity and structural brain changes: Regular aerobic exercise induces structural changes in the brain, particularly in regions associated with executive function, such as the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. For example, Erickson et al. (2011) found that a 1-year aerobic exercise intervention increased hippocampal volume by 2% in older adults, which was associated with improvements in spatial memory. Additionally, Colcombe et al. (2006) demonstrated that a 6-month aerobic exercise program increased gray and white matter volume in the prefrontal cortex of older adults, which correlated with enhanced executive function performance.
• Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Heo, S., Alves, H., White, S. M., Wojcicki, T. R., Mailey, E., Vieira, V. J., Martin, S. A., Pence, B. D., Woods, J. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 3017-3022. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108
• Colcombe, S. J., Erickson, K. I., Scalf, P. E., Kim, J. S., Prakash, R., McAuley, E., Elavsky, S., Marquez, D. X., Hu, L., & Kramer, A. F. (2006). Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 61(11), 1166-1170. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/61.11.1166
• 2. Enhanced synaptic plasticity and neurotrophic factors: Chronic aerobic exercise upregulates the expression of neurotrophic factors, such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). These factors support the growth, survival, and plasticity of neurons, facilitating long-term potentiation (LTP) and synaptic strengthening, which are essential for learning and memory. For instance, Erickson et al. (2011) found that the exercise-induced increase in hippocampal volume was accompanied by a significant increase in serum BDNF levels, suggesting a role for BDNF in exercise-induced neuroplasticity.
• Erickson, K. I., Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Basak, C., Szabo, A., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Heo, S., Alves, H., White, S. M., Wojcicki, T. R., Mailey, E., Vieira, V. J., Martin, S. A., Pence, B. D., Woods, J. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2011). Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(7), 3017-3022. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015950108
• 3. Improved cardiovascular health and cerebral blood flow: Regular aerobic exercise enhances cardiovascular function, leading to improved cerebral blood flow and reduced risk of vascular cognitive impairment. Enhanced cerebral blood flow ensures a consistent and efficient delivery of oxygen and glucose to the brain, providing the necessary substrates for cognitive processing. For example, Chapman et al. (2013) demonstrated that a 12-week aerobic exercise intervention improved cerebral blood flow and executive function in sedentary older adults.
• Chapman, S. B., Aslan, S., Spence, J. S., DeFina, L. F., Keebler, M. W., Didehbani, N., & Lu, H. (2013). Shorter term aerobic exercise improves brain, cognition, and cardiovascular fitness in aging. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 5, 75. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2013.00075
• 4. Reduced inflammation and oxidative stress: Chronic low-grade inflammation and oxidative stress have been linked to cognitive decline and impaired executive function. Regular aerobic exercise has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects that may help protect against age-related cognitive decline. For instance, Suwabe et al. (2017) found that a 4-week high-intensity interval training (HIIT) program reduced serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and improved executive function in healthy young adults.
• Suwabe, K., Byun, K., Hyodo, K., Reagh, Z. M., Roberts, J. M., Matsushita, A., … & Soya, H. (2018). Rapid stimulation of human dentate gyrus function with acute mild exercise. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(41), 10487-10492. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1805668115
• 5. Enhanced neural network connectivity and efficiency: Chronic aerobic exercise strengthens the connections between brain regions involved in executive function, leading to more efficient information processing. For example, Voss et al. (2010) used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to demonstrate that a 1-year aerobic exercise intervention increased functional connectivity within the default mode network and frontal executive network in older adults, which was associated with improvements in executive function.
• Voss, M. W., Prakash, R. S., Erickson, K. I., Basak, C., Chaddock, L., Kim, J. S., Alves, H., Heo, S., Szabo, A. N., White, S. M., Wójcicki, T. R., Mailey, E. L., Gothe, N., Olson, E. A., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2010). Plasticity of brain networks in a randomized intervention trial of exercise training in older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 2, 32. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2010.00032

Question 8

Justify the importance of studying the transient executive function benefits provided by a single bout of aerobic exercise for your thesis.

Answer 8

Studying the transient executive function benefits provided by a single bout of aerobic exercise is important for several reasons. First, it can help identify the immediate cognitive effects of exercise, which may have practical implications for optimizing cognitive performance in various settings, such as school or work. Second, understanding the mechanisms underlying these acute effects can provide insights into the long-term cognitive benefits of regular exercise. Finally, this research can inform the development of targeted exercise interventions for individuals with executive function deficits, such as those with ADHD or age-related cognitive decline.

Question 9

Identify and describe methods for measuring exercise tolerance, providing examples.

Answer 9

• VO2max Test: Measures the maximum volume of oxygen an individual can use during intense exercise, indicating cardiovascular fitness (Keir et al., 2018).
• Lactate Threshold Test: Assesses the intensity at which lactate begins to accumulate in the blood, reflecting the point where aerobic metabolism becomes insufficient (McMorris et al., 2009).
  Time-to-Exhaustion Test: Measures how long an individual can sustain a given intensity of exercise before exhaustion, indicating endurance capacity (Smith & Ainslie, 2017).

Question 10

Define lactate, explain how it is measured, and discuss the significance of lactate threshold in assessing fitness.

Answer 10

• Lactate is a byproduct of anaerobic metabolism produced when glucose is broken down and oxidized during high-intensity exercise. It is measured using a blood lactate test, typically involving a small blood sample taken during incremental exercise tests.
  Lactate threshold refers to the exercise intensity at which lactate begins to accumulate in the blood at a faster rate than it can be cleared. This threshold is a key indicator of an athlete’s endurance capacity and aerobic efficiency. Training at or near the lactate threshold can improve performance and delay the onset of fatigue (Smith & Ainslie, 2017).

Question 11

Describe the VO2max test and how it is conducted.

Answer 11

• The VO2max test measures the maximum amount of oxygen an individual can utilize during intense exercise. It is conducted as follows:
• Preparation: The participant is equipped with a mask connected to a metabolic cart to measure oxygen intake and carbon dioxide output.
• Exercise Protocol: The participant performs a graded exercise test on a treadmill or cycle ergometer, with the intensity gradually increasing until exhaustion.
  Data Collection: The metabolic cart continuously measures respiratory gases to determine the peak oxygen consumption (VO2max) (Keir et al., 2018).

Question 12

Compare the muscles activated during stationary upright and recumbent cycling, and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each cycling position.

Answer 12

• Stationary Upright Cycling:
• Muscles Activated: Primarily engages the quadriceps, hamstrings, glutes, calves, and core muscles.
• Advantages: Mimics outdoor cycling, providing a more comprehensive workout for the lower body and core stability.
• Disadvantages: Can be more strenuous on the lower back and knees due to the upright posture.
• Recumbent Cycling:
• Muscles Activated: Focuses on the quadriceps and hamstrings with reduced involvement of the upper body and core.
• Advantages: Offers better lumbar support, reducing strain on the lower back and joints, making it suitable for individuals with back pain or mobility issues.
  Disadvantages: Provides a less intense core workout and may not translate as well to outdoor cycling dynamics.

Question 13

What are different ways to calibrate exercise intensity on a stationary bike, and what are their pros/cons?

Answer 13

• 1. Absolute Heart Rate (HRt): The actual number of heart beats per minute during exercise.
• Pro: Easy to measure and monitor during exercise.
• Con: Does not account for individual differences in maximum HR or resting HR.
• Light intensity ranges from 98-128 beats per minute (50-65% of HRmax), moderate intensity from 128-157 beats per minute (65-80% of HRmax), and heavy intensity from 157-186 beats per minute (80-95% of HRmax) (Tanaka et al., 2001).
• 2. Percentage of Maximum Heart Rate (%HRmax): The percentage of an individual’s maximum heart rate reached during exercise (e.g., 220 - age) or by measuring maximum HR during a graded exercise test
• Pro: Accounts for individual differences in maximum HR.
• Con: Age-predicted maximum HR formulas may not be accurate for all individuals.
• Light intensity cycling corresponds to 50-65% of HRmax, moderate intensity to 65-80% of HRmax, and heavy intensity to 80-95% of HRmax (Tanaka et al., 2001).
• 3. Heart Rate Reserve (HRR): The difference between an individual’s maximum HR and resting HR, used to calculate a target HR range for exercise (e.g., 40-60% HRR for moderate-intensity exercise)
• Pro: Provides a more individualized measure of exercise intensity compared to %HRmax.
• Con: Requires accurate measurement of both maximum HR and resting HR.
• Light intensity cycling corresponds to 30-45% of HRR, moderate intensity to 45-65% of HRR, and heavy intensity to 65-85% of HRR (Garber et al., 2011).
• 4. Lactate Threshold Heart Rate (LTHR): The heart rate at which lactate begins to accumulate in the blood during incremental exercise.
• Pro: Allows for precise targeting of specific training adaptations.
• Con: Requires a graded exercise test with blood lactate measurements to determine LTHR.
• Lactate threshold heart rate (LTHR) can also be used to define cycling intensity. Light intensity ranges from 60-75% of LTHR, moderate intensity from 75-90% of LTHR, and heavy intensity from 90-105% of LTHR (Riebe et al., 2018).
• 5.Blood Lactate Concentration: The amount of lactate present in the blood during exercise.
• Pro: Provides an objective measure of exercise intensity that is closely related to metabolic stress and fatigue
• Con: Requires invasive blood sampling and analysis, which can be uncomfortable and time-consuming.
• Light intensity is characterized by a blood lactate concentration of <2 mmol/L, moderate intensity by 2-4 mmol/L, and heavy intensity by >4 mmol/L (Riebe et al., 2018).
• 6. Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE): A subjective measure of exercise intensity based on an individual’s perception of effort.
• Pro: Simple and easy to use, requiring no additional equipment.
• Con: Subjective nature of RPE may lead to inconsistencies in exercise intensity between individuals and sessions.
• 7. Power Output (Watts): The amount of mechanical work performed per unit of time during exercise.
• Pro: Provides an objective measure of exercise intensity that is independent of individual factors such as fitness level or environmental conditions.
• Con: Requires a stationary bike with power measurement capabilities or a separate power meter, which can be expensive.
  Light intensity cycling may range from 50-100 watts, moderate intensity from 100-200 watts, and heavy intensity from 200-300 watts (Zeni et al., 1996).

Question 14

Describe the BCBT. How is it different from BCTT, and cite relevant studies assessing it’s validity, reliability and clinical utility.

Answer 14

The Buffalo Concussion Bike Test (BCBT) is a graded exercise test performed on a stationary bike to assess physiological recovery and guide return-to-sport decisions following a sport-related concussion (SRC). The test involves progressively increasing exercise intensity while monitoring heart rate and symptoms, and is terminated when the individual reaches their heart rate threshold (HRt), characterized by significant symptom exacerbation, or voluntary exhaustion (Haider et al., 2019; Leddy et al., 2011).

Compared to the Buffalo Concussion Treadmill Test (BCTT), the BCBT offers several advantages:

1. Accessibility: Stationary bikes are more widely available and require less space than treadmills.
2. Safety: The BCBT eliminates the risk of falling associated with treadmill use, especially in individuals with post-concussion balance issues.
3. Precision: The BCBT allows for more precise control over workload increments, as resistance can be adjusted in smaller increments compared to speed and grade on a treadmill.

Studies have assessed the validity, reliability, and clinical utility of the BCBT:

1. Haider et al. (2019) found the BCBT to be a comparable alternative to the BCTT for evaluating exercise tolerance, with equivalent HRt between the two tests. The study also demonstrated the BCBT’s ability to predict recovery time, with those exhibiting a lower symptom-limited threshold requiring a longer recovery period.
2. Janssen et al. (2022) conducted a systematic review to synthesize research evidence regarding the psychometric properties and clinical utility of both tests. Despite the limited research on the BCBT, it appears to be useful in the assessment and management of patients experiencing concussion symptoms. Vestibular impairment resulting in dizziness and balance dysfunction is a common symptom following concussion and head injury. Head movements associated with walking on a treadmill may produce false-positive symptom reports in the BCTT that are not due to true exercise intolerance. Therefore, the stationary bike may be a valuable alternative, as it may better enable the maintenance of head stability.

Question 15

What are the strengths, weaknesses and limitations of the BCBT?

Answer 15

• Strengths of the BCBT:
• 1. Accessible and versatile alternative to the BCTT
• 2. Safer than the BCTT, especially for individuals with balance issues
• 3. Allows for more precise control over workload increments
• 4. Reliable and valid tool for assessing exercise tolerance and predicting recovery time post-SRC
• Weaknesses and limitations of the BCBT:
• 1. Requires specialized equipment (stationary bike) and trained personnel to administer the test
• 2. May not be suitable for individuals who are not comfortable or familiar with cycling
• 3. The test is based on subjective symptom reporting, which may be influenced by factors such as motivation or understanding of the rating scales
     
     4. Limited research on the BCBT compared to the BCTT, which has been more extensively studied

Question 16

Briefly define and describe the roles of neurotransmitters, biomolecules, neurotrophic factors, catecholamines, cytokins, and lactate

Answer 16

Neurotransmitters:

Definition: Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that facilitate communication between neurons in the nervous system.
Roles: They are responsible for the transmission of signals across the synaptic cleft, enabling the propagation of electrical impulses from one neuron to another. Examples include acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine, and glutamate.

Biomolecules:

Definition: Biomolecules are the organic compounds that are essential for the structure and function of living organisms.
Roles: They include proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids, which are involved in various cellular processes, such as energy production, structural support, and genetic information storage and transfer.

Neurotrophic factors:

Definition: Neurotrophic factors are a class of proteins that promote the survival, development, and maintenance of neurons.
Roles: They play a crucial role in the regulation of neuronal growth, differentiation, and synaptic plasticity. Examples include nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF).

Catecholamines:

Definition: Catecholamines are a group of neurotransmitters and hormones derived from the amino acid tyrosine.
Roles: They include dopamine, norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline), and epinephrine (also known as adrenaline). Catecholamines are involved in various physiological processes, such as the regulation of mood, attention, reward-seeking behavior, and the body’s stress response.

Cytokines

Are signaling proteins that regulate immune responses, inflammation, and cell growth/differentiation. They mediate communication between cells and coordinate various physiological processes.

Key roles include:
Immune response: Stimulate and coordinate immune cells (e.g., interleukins, interferons, TNF).
Inflammation: Promote and regulate inflammatory processes (e.g., IL-1, IL-6, TNF-alpha).
Cell growth/differentiation: Influence proliferation and maturation of various cell types (e.g., GM-CSF, TGF-beta).
Neuromodulation: Affect nervous system function, including cognition and behavior (e.g., IL-1, IL-6, TNF-alpha).

Lactate:

Lactate is a metabolite produced during anaerobic glycolysis, the process of breaking down glucose in the absence of oxygen.

Role: Serves as an important energy substrate, particularly for muscles and the brain.
Acts as a signaling molecule, influencing various physiological processes.
Helps maintain pH balance in the body by acting as a buffer.
Plays a role in gluconeogenesis, the process of creating new glucose from non-carbohydrate precursors.
Involvement in the Cori cycle, where lactate produced in muscles is transported to the liver and converted back to glucose.

Question 17

Define gray and white matter

Answer 17

Gray matter is primarily composed of neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, and synapses, and is responsible for processing and integrating information in the brain. It is found in the cerebral cortex and deep brain structures.

White matter is primarily composed of myelinated axons that facilitate faster transmission of electrical signals. It is found deep within the brain, beneath the gray matter, and connects different brain regions, enabling efficient communication and integration of various functions.

Question 18

Define neuroinflamation and oxidative stress

Answer 18

Neuroinflammation:
Inflammatory response in the central nervous system, involving immune cell activation and release of inflammatory mediators.

Oxidative Stress:
Imbalance between production of reactive oxygen species and the body’s ability to neutralize them, leading to cellular damage.

Question 19

Utilize the literature cited in your thesis to support the validity and reliability of the BCTT in predicting SRC recovery

Answer 19

• Leddy et al. (2018) conducted a prospective, randomized, controlled trial to evaluate the safety and prognostic value of early provocative (i.e., eliciting symptoms) exercise testing using the BCTT in adolescents who had sustained a recent SRC (1-9 days post-injury). The study found that early provocative exercise testing using the BCTT is safe for recently concussed adolescents and has prognostic utility, with lower HRt being associated with a longer recovery time.
• In turn, Leddy et al. (2019) assessed the effectiveness of early sub-symptom threshold aerobic exercise in adolescents with a recent SRC diagnosis (<10 days postinjury) in a multicenter, prospective, randomized clinical trial. Participants were randomized to either an aerobic exercise group after completing the BCTT or a stretching placebo group. The study found that aerobic exercise safely accelerated recovery from SRC (i.e., improvements in symptoms and shorter return to activities of daily living) in adolescents compared to the placebo stretching intervention.
• In addition to the prognostic value and effectiveness of BCTT, researchers have also investigated changes in exertion-related symptoms on the BCTT across different age groups. Rutschmann et al. (2021) conducted a retrospective study examining changes in exertion-related symptoms on the BCTT in adults (age ≥18 years; 8-129 days postinjury) and youth (age <18 years; 9-101 days postinjury) following an SRC. The study found that exertion-related symptoms improved over time in both age groups, with adults having increased initial exertion-related symptoms compared to youth. Increased initial symptoms were associated with longer recovery times in both age groups.

Furthermore, Leddy et al. (2019) reported that male adolescents with an SRC (1-9 days post-injury) who completed a 20-min bout of aerobic exercise at 80% of HRt on the BCTT recovered significantly faster compared to a standard care (i.e., rest) group when measuring the time from the initial clinic visit to recovery. Moreover, at the end of the 14-day symptom monitoring period, the exercise group had significantly fewer participants who remained symptomatic overall, and in the physical, cognitive, and sleep symptom clusters of the SCAT-3 symptom scale compared to the rest group. These findings support the use of the BCTT as a safe method for early assessment and as a useful prognostic tool for predicting recovery duration in acutely concussed adolescents.