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BIOL 227 Pathophysiology Spring 2017 > Exam7 Chs 31-32 Endocrine Control & Disorders > Flashcards

Exam7 Chs 31-32 Endocrine Control & Disorders Flashcards

1
Q

3 Ways Hormones act on Target Cells

A
  1. controls rate of enzymatic rxns
  2. controls transport of ions or molecules across cell membranes
  3. controls gene expression and synthesis of proteins
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2
Q

What are Hormones?

A
  • chemical messengers
  • initiate pre-programmed responses in target cells
  • “on” switch that tells cell to carry out response
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3
Q

What are actions of hormones?

A
  1. released by gland/cell
  2. circulated in bloodstream
  3. reach target cell
  4. specific action
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4
Q

Hormone action

A
  • must bind w/receptors on target cells
  • surface or intracellular
  • type specific to hormone
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5
Q

What is the rxn time of hormones?

A

milliseconds to days

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6
Q

What is a target cell?

A
  • cells the hormones will be acting upon

- specificity of signaling can be controlled if only some cells can respond to a particular hormone

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7
Q

Target cell response varies based on what factors?

A
  • # of receptors

- affinity of receptors

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8
Q

Endocrine signaling

A

internal secretion of hormones directly into bloodstream to reach distant target cells

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9
Q

Paracrine signaling

A
  • targets nearby cells (para = near)

- growth factor, clotting factor, retinoic acid, neurotransmitters

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10
Q

Autocrine signaling

A
  • local chemical signal that acts on the cell that secreted it (auto = self)
  • estrogen can be released by ovary and fxn as a hormone or act locally via paracrine signaling to stimulate oogenesis
  • testosterone can be released by testes and fxn as hormone or act locally via paracrine signaling to stimulate spermatogenesis
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11
Q

Non-steroids

A
  • amino acid compounds
  • do not dissolve in lipids
  • hard to get into the cell, easy to get out of the cell
  • Amines, Proteins, Glycoproteins, Peptides, Prostaglandins
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12
Q

Amines

A
  • derived from amino acid Tyrosine

Dopamine, Epinephrine, Norephinephrine

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13
Q

Proteins

A
  • made up of long chains of amino acids

- GH, PTH, Prolactin

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14
Q

Glycoproteins

A
  • proteins joined to carbohydrates

- FSH, LH, TSH

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15
Q

Peptides

A
  • short chains of amino acids

- ADH, Oxytocin, TRH, Somatostatin, GnRH

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16
Q

Prostaglandins

A

fatty acids produced in a wide variety of cells

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17
Q

Steroids

A
  • lipid based
  • derived from cholesterol
  • dissolve in lipids
  • easy to get into the cell, hard to get out of the cell
  • estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, aldosterone, cortisol, androgens (DHEA)
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18
Q

Nonsteroid Hormone sequence

A
  • endocrine gland secretes nonsteroid hormone
  • body fluid carries hormone to target cell
  • hormone combines w/receptor site on membrane of target cell, activating G protein (messenger)
  • G protein activates adenylate cyclase
  • adenylate cyclase fxns to turn ATP into cAMP
  • cAMP activates protein kinases that change the metabolic processes in the cell which causes the hormone’s effects
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19
Q

Steroid Hormone sequence

A
  • endocrine gland secretes steroid hormone to be carried by blood to target cell
  • steroid hormone diffuses thru target cell membrane and into cytoplasm or nucleus b/c soluble in lipids, no need for messenger
  • hormone combines w/receptor molecule in cytoplasm/nucleus
  • hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA & promotes transcription of messenger RNA
  • mRNA enters cytoplasm & directs protein synthesis
  • synthesized proteins produce hormone’s effects
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20
Q

Hypothalamic-Pituitary System

A

controls hormones and trophic hormones

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21
Q

Location of hormone receptors

A

on or in the cell

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22
Q

How target cells respond

A
  • altering existing proteins

- making new proteins

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23
Q

What determines magnitude of target cell response

A
  • amount of active hormone available to cell

- # and activity of target cell receptors

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24
Q

Up-regulation

A

cell makes more hormone receptors

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25
Q

Down-regulation

A

cell makes less hormone receptors

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26
Q

Q: your patient has low levels of circulating thyroid hormone. How will the cells of the thyroid gland respond?

A

A: Up-regulation
- when there is less hormonal activity, cells can make more hormone receptors and increase the sensitivity of the existing receptors to the hormone

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27
Q

Q: T/F – Steroid hormones are all derived from cholesterol

A

A: True
- adrenal sex hormones, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids all come from cholesterol and have similar chemical structures even though their fxns are different

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28
Q

3 Pathways for Hormones after Affecting Body Cells

A
  1. may be destroyed by enzymes at the receptor site (epinephrine, dopamine)
  2. may be taken up by cells and destroyed (peptide hormones)
  3. may be destroyed in the liver and passed out in the bile (steroid hormones, T3 and T4)
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29
Q

Endocrine pathologies come from:

A
  • too much hormone secretion
  • too little hormone secretion
  • abnormal target cell response to the hormone
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30
Q

Hypothalamus

A

knows the state of the body:

  • temperature
  • blood osmolarity
  • blood nutrients
  • blood hormone levels
  • inflammatory mediators in blood
  • emotions
  • pain
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31
Q

Hypothalamus secretes:

A
  1. CRH (Corticotropin-releasing hormone)
  2. TRH (Thyrotropin-releasing hormone)
  3. GHRH (Growth Hormone-releasing hormone)
  4. GnRH (Gonadotropin-releasing hormone)
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32
Q

CRH (Corticotropin-releasing hormone)

A
  • controls release of ACTH

- stress release

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33
Q

TRH (Thyrotropin-releasing hormone)

A

controls release of TSH

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34
Q

GHRH (Growth Hormone-releasing hormone)

A

controls release of GH

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35
Q

GnRH (Gonadotropin-releasing hormone)

A

controls release of FSH

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36
Q

Other name for Pituitary gland

A

Hypophysis

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37
Q

Anterior Pituitary

A
  1. ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone)
  2. TSH (Thyroid-stimulating hormone)
  3. GH (Growth hormone)
  4. FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone)
  5. LH (Luteinizing hormone)
  6. Prolactin
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38
Q

ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic hormone)

A

stimulates adrenal cortex to make hormones such as glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids

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39
Q

ACTH deficiency causes what pathology?

A
  • worst effects

- secondary adrenal insufficiency –> weakness, anorexia, fevers, dizzy spells aka postural hypertension

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40
Q

TSH (Thyroid-stimulating hormone)

A

stimulates thyroid gland to produce hormones such as T3, T4, Calcitonin

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41
Q

TSH deficiency causes what pathologies?

A

Hypothyroidism: cold intolerance, mental dullness, weight gain, lethargy

42
Q

GH (growth hormone)

A
  • stimulates bone and muscle to grow via the liver and growth factors
  • promotes protein synthesis and fat metabolism
  • decreases carbs metabolism
43
Q

GH excess causes what pathology?

A

Kids - Gigantism
Symptoms: excess GH before puberty and fusion of epiphyses of long bones, growing too fast for joints (such as eyeballs popping out b/c the ligaments in eye sockets cannot handle the rapid growth)

Adults - Acromegaly (usually due to GH-secreting adenomas)
Symptoms: extensive bone remodeling, internal organ remodeling (Andre the Giant)

44
Q

GH deficiency causes what pathologies?

A
  • Idiopathic GH deficiency (don’t know what causes it)
  • Pituitary/hypothalamic tumors, which then can’t produce GH
  • Laron Type Dwarfism: insensitivity to GH
45
Q

FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone)

A

Females: stimulates growth of ovarian follicle, ovulation
Males: sperm production

46
Q

LH (Luteinizing hormone)

A

Females: stimulates development of corpus luteum, release of oocyte, production of estrogen and progesterone
Males: stimulates secretion of testosterone, development of interstitial tissue of the testes

47
Q

FSH and LH deficiencies cause what pathologies?

A
  • low libido

- less erectile fxn

48
Q

Prolactin

A

stimulates mammary gland growth and production of milk

49
Q

Pituitary adenoma

A
  • tumor of the anterior pituitary
  • common pituitary complication
  • associated with hypersecretion
50
Q

Posterior Pituitary

A
  1. ADH (Antidiuretic hormone)

2. Oxytocin

51
Q

ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone)

A

increases water reabsorption by kidneys

52
Q

ADH excess causes what pathology?

A

SIADH (Syndrome of Inappropriate ADH Secretion): fluid overload resulting in weight gain, hyponatremia, concentrated urine, muscle weakness and cramps due to electrolyte imbalance –> lethargy, confusion, seizures, coma, and death

53
Q

ADH deficiency causes what pathology?

A

Diabetes Insipidus: polyuria (excessive urination)

54
Q

Oxytocin

A

stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth

55
Q

Precocious puberty

A
  • early puberty

- early activation of Hypothalamus- pituitary-gonadal axis

56
Q

Adrenal Cortex

A
  1. Mineralocorticoids - Aldosterone
  2. Glucocorticoids - Cortisol
  3. Adrenal Androgens - DHEA
57
Q

Aldosterone (Mineralocorticoids)

A

retains sodium and gets rid of potassium which is excreted through the urine (“crazy stage mom that loves sodium and wants to get rid of potassium”)

58
Q

Aldosterone excess causes what pathology?

A

Hyperaldosteronism: hypokalemia (lowered levels of potassium in the blood), alkalosis (increased hydrogen ion excretion), high BP, muscle cramps and weakness, numbness and tingling in hands

59
Q

Cortisol (Glucocorticoids)

A
  • anti-inflammatory
  • aids in metabolism of carbs, proteins and fats
  • active during stress by increasing levels o nutrients in the blood
  • causes increase in catabolism
60
Q

Cortisol excess causes what pathology?

A

Cushing’s syndrome: moon face, buffalo hump, abdominal fat and striations, altered fat metabolism, muscle weakness and wasting in lower limbs, osteoporosis

61
Q

Cortisol deficiency causes what pathologies?

A
  1. Congenital adrenal hyperplasia: less cortisol synthesis, other hormones go up or down
  2. Primary and Secondary adrenal cortical insufficiency –> Addison’s Disease: anorexia, fatigue, myalgia, hyponatremia (low sodium), hyperkalemia (high potassium)
62
Q

Androgens (DHEA)

A

converted to testosterone and dihydrotestosterone in the periphery

63
Q

Adrenal Medulla

A
  1. Epinephrine (aka Adrenaline)

2. Norepinephrine (aka Noradrenaline)

64
Q

Epinephrine

A

stimulatory, excitatory hormone that increases BP and heart rate, dilation of bronchioles

65
Q

Norepinephrine

A

stimulatory, excitatory hormone that increases BP and heart rate, dilation of bronchioles

66
Q

Thyroid

A
  1. T3 (Triiodothyronine)
  2. T4 (Thyroxine)
  3. Calcitonin
67
Q

T3 (Triiodothyronine)

A

increases metabolic rate, increases both physical and mental activities

68
Q

T3 and T4 deficiencies cause what pathology?

A

Hypothyroidism: weight gain, fatigue, Bradycardia

69
Q

T4 (Thyroxine)

A
  • inactive until converted to T3 in the tissues

- increases metabolic rate, increases both physical and mental activities

70
Q

Hypothyroidism

A
  • tired, faulty memory, constipation, Bradycardia
  • common cause worldwide low iodine (not in US)
  • Congenital: preventable mental retardation
  • Acquired: Hashimoto’s thyroiditis is autoimmune disorder where thyroid gland totally destroyed by an immunologic process (aka Autoimmune thyroiditis)
  • Thyroid storm: extremely life-threatening thyroiditis
  • Myxedema coma: extremely life-threatening hypothyroidism
  • Thyroidectomy: surgical removal of thyroid, common for hypo
71
Q

Hyperthyroidism (Thyrotoxicosis)

A
  • skinny, nervous, less sleep, can’t sweat
  • Graves disease: autoimmune disorder caused by too much TSH associated with goiter and exophthalmus (hypertrophy of tissues in eye socket)
  • thyroid tumors
72
Q

Thyroid insufficiency due to lack of Iodine

A
  • T3 and T4 not made
  • no negative feedback to hypothalamus
  • TRH and TSH continue to be made
  • if able, thyroid will grow in response to the TSH
73
Q

Q: T/F - Simple goiter is caused by increased production of thyroid hormone

A

A: False

- simple goiter is result of iodine insufficiency

74
Q

Calcitonin

A
  • decreases blood calcium levels
  • moves calcium out of bloodstream into the tissues
  • antagonist is PTH
  • bone problems if Calcitonin insufficiency
75
Q

Goiter

A
  • hypertrophy of thyroid gland
  • hypothyroidism, lack of negative feedback can result in high TSH levels
  • hyperthyroidism: antibodies can mimic TSH and cause goiter
76
Q

Parathyroids

A

PTH (Parathyroid hormone)

77
Q

PTH (Parathyroid hormone)

A
  • regulates calcium xchange btwn blood and bones by increasing concentration in the blood
  • pulls calcium from tissues and deposits into blood
78
Q

PTH excess causes what pathology?

A

Hyperparathyroidism: hypercalcemia (high calcium level in blood), fatigue, fractures

79
Q

PTH deficiency causes what pathology?

A

Hypoparathyroidism: hypocalcemia, tetany

80
Q

Pancreatic Islet cells

A
  1. Insulin
  2. Glucagon
  3. Somatostatin
81
Q

Insulin

A
  • beta cells

- LOWERS blood sugar level by helping glucose transport across cell membranes of muscle, liver, & adipose tissue

82
Q

Insulin deficiency causes what pathologies?

A

Type I and Type II Diabetes mellitus, hyperglycemia (too much sugar), metabolic syndrome

83
Q

Gestational Diabetes

A

intolerance to insulin, pregnancy diabetes

84
Q

Somogyi Effect

A

low sugar episodes, insulin induced

85
Q

Glucagon

A
  • alpha cells

- INCREASES blood sugar levels by stimulating liver release of glucose

86
Q

Glucagon deficiency causes what pathology?

A

hypoglycemia (not enough sugar), insulin goes up

87
Q

Somatostatin

A

delays intestinal absorption of glucose

88
Q

Chronic Complications of Diabetes Mellitus

A
  • foot ulcers
  • diabetic ketoacidosis: hyperglycemia, ketosis (raised ketone bodies), metabolic acidosis (body produces too much acid). caused by uncontrolled diabetes. Ketones are made when body breaks down fat
89
Q

Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state

A
  • common in Type II Diabetes

- cause of high blood sugar and low insulin can result in severe dehydration

90
Q

Ovaries

A
  1. Estrogen

2. Progesterone

91
Q

Estrogen

A

affects development of female sex organs and secondary sex characteristics

92
Q

Progesterone

A
  • influences menstrual cycle
  • stimulates growth of uterine wall
  • maintains pregnancy
93
Q

Testes

A

Androgens - Testosterone

94
Q

Androgens (Testosterone)

A
  • affect development of male sex organs and secondary sex characteristics
  • aid in sperm production
95
Q

Pineal gland

A

Melatonin

96
Q

Melatonin

A
  • sleep/wake cycle

- used to be marketed as diet aid, now marketed as jet lag aid

97
Q

Melatonin deficiency can lead to what pathologies?

A
  • lack of sleep
  • insomnia and other sleep disorders
  • irritability
  • uptick in epinephrine and norepinephrine which can damage blood vessels
  • increased risk of cardiovascular disease
98
Q

Q: T/F - The pituitary gland controls the release of thyroid hormone

A

A: True
- pituitary gland on a cue from the hypothalamus tells other organs or glands to produce and secrete or inhibit the appropriate hormones

99
Q

Tropic hormone

A
  • hormone that acts on other endocrine glands

- TSH, ACTH, LH, FSH

100
Q

Trophic hormone

A

hormone that affects growth and development directly

BIOL 227 Pathophysiology Spring 2017 (8 decks)

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